Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him)

Muhammad ibn Abdullah (c. 570 – 632 CE / 53 BH - 11 AH) was the final Prophet and Messenger of Allah, through whom the Quran was revealed. Muslims believe he is the Seal of the Prophets, completing the line of messengers that began with Adam and included Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. His life, teachings, and character serve as the perfect example for humanity, and his message of monotheism, justice, and compassion transformed not only Arabia but eventually influenced civilizations across the world.

Early Life and Background

Birth and Noble Lineage

Prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in approximately 570 CE, during what is known as the Year of the Elephant ('Am al-Fil), when Abraha's army attempted to destroy the Kaaba but was miraculously repelled. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, the most respected tribe in Arabia, which held the custodianship of the Kaaba.

His father, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, died before his birth, making him an orphan from the very beginning. His mother, Aminah bint Wahb, came from the Banu Zuhrah clan, also a noble family of Quraysh. This orphan status would profoundly influence his later teachings about caring for the vulnerable, the poor, and the marginalized in society.

The Prophetic Lineage

His lineage traced back through Ishmael (Ismail), the son of Prophet Abraham, connecting him directly to the Abrahamic tradition and fulfilling the ancient prophecy mentioned in religious texts about a prophet arising from the descendants of Ishmael. The complete genealogy, as preserved by Arab historians, traces through forty-two generations from Muhammad to Abraham:

Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusayy ibn Kilab—and continuing through the generations to Adnan, who is recognized as a descendant of Ishmael. This noble lineage was well-known among the Arabs, who placed great importance on genealogy and tribal affiliation.

The Quraysh tribe itself held a position of unparalleled prestige in Arabia. They were the custodians of the Kaaba, the ancient house of worship built by Abraham and Ishmael, and they controlled the lucrative pilgrimage trade. Within Quraysh, the Banu Hashim clan was particularly respected for their nobility, generosity, and leadership qualities. Muhammad's grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, was the chief of Banu Hashim and one of the most influential leaders in Mecca.

The Year of the Elephant

The year of Muhammad's birth was marked by a momentous event that would be remembered throughout Arabian history. Abraha al-Ashram, the Christian viceroy of Yemen under the Aksumite Empire of Abyssinia, had built a magnificent cathedral in Sana'a, hoping to divert the Arab pilgrimage from Mecca to Yemen. When this plan failed and the Kaaba remained the center of Arabian religious life, Abraha decided to destroy it.

He assembled a large army, including war elephants—creatures unknown to the Arabs and terrifying in their size and power. The army marched toward Mecca, and the Meccans, unable to defend against such a force, retreated to the surrounding hills. Abd al-Muttalib, Muhammad's grandfather, met with Abraha and requested only the return of his camels that had been seized. When Abraha expressed surprise that he cared more about his camels than the Kaaba, Abd al-Muttalib replied with profound faith: "I am the lord of the camels, and the Kaaba has its own Lord who will protect it."

As Abraha's army approached the Kaaba, the lead elephant, named Mahmud, refused to move toward the sacred house, though it would move in any other direction. Then, as described in Surah Al-Fil (Chapter 105) of the Quran, Allah sent flocks of birds (ababil) carrying stones of baked clay, which they dropped on the army, destroying it completely. Abraha himself fled but died on the journey back to Yemen. This miraculous event occurred in the same year Muhammad was born, marking his birth year as one of divine intervention and protection of the sacred house he would later purify and restore to pure monotheistic worship.

The Circumstances of Birth

Muhammad was born on a Monday, in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal, most likely on the 12th day, though some scholars suggest the 9th. His father, Abdullah, had died approximately six months earlier while returning from a trading journey to Syria, leaving Aminah a widow before she could even meet her son.

According to traditional accounts, the night of Muhammad's birth was marked by several signs. His mother Aminah reported that during her pregnancy, she experienced no discomfort—unusual for expectant mothers—and that she saw a light emanating from her that illuminated the palaces of Syria. At the moment of his birth, she saw this light again, and the delivery was easy and painless.

Various other signs were reported by early historians: the idols in the Kaaba bowed down, the palace of the Persian emperor Khosrow shook and fourteen of its towers collapsed, the sacred fire of the Zoroastrians that had burned continuously for a thousand years was extinguished, and the waters of Lake Sawa dried up. While these reports come from later historical compilations and their authenticity is debated among scholars, they reflect the understanding of early Muslims that Muhammad's birth was an event of cosmic significance.

His mother named him Muhammad, meaning "the praised one"—a name that was uncommon among the Arabs at that time. His grandfather Abd al-Muttalib was delighted with his grandson and took him to the Kaaba, where he thanked Allah for this gift and prayed for the child's protection and success.

Childhood and Early Years

Life with Halimah in the Desert

Following Arabian custom, the infant Muhammad was sent to the desert to be nursed by Halimah al-Sa'diyah of the Banu Sa'd tribe. The Bedouin practice of sending children to the desert was believed to strengthen them physically, develop their character through the harsh but pure desert environment, and teach them the eloquent Arabic language, away from the diseases and corruptions of city life.

The year Muhammad was born was a year of drought and famine. When the wet nurses from the Bedouin tribes came to Mecca seeking infants to nurse (a service for which they were paid), they were reluctant to take Muhammad because he was an orphan with no father to provide generous compensation. Halimah herself had come to Mecca on a weak donkey, with her own infant, and her family was suffering from the drought. She and her husband initially sought a more prosperous family's child.

However, when all the other wet nurses had chosen infants and Halimah was left without one, she decided to take Muhammad rather than return empty-handed. From the moment she took him, blessings began to manifest. Her previously dry breasts filled with milk, enough to nurse both Muhammad and her own son until both were satisfied—something that had not happened during the drought. Her weak donkey, which had been lagging behind the caravan, suddenly became so strong and swift that it outpaced all the others, causing her companions to wonder at the transformation.

When they reached the territory of Banu Sa'd, Halimah's flocks began to thrive miraculously. While other shepherds' animals returned hungry and gave little milk, Halimah's sheep and goats returned well-fed and gave abundant milk. Her husband said to her, "By Allah, Halimah, you have taken a blessed soul." The barren land around their dwelling became green and fertile, while the rest of the region remained in drought. Other members of the tribe would tell their shepherds, "Graze your flocks where the shepherd of Halimah grazes his," hoping to share in the blessings.

The Opening of the Chest

When Muhammad was about four years old, an extraordinary event occurred that is known as the "Opening of the Chest" (Shaq al-Sadr). According to authentic narrations, Muhammad was playing with Halimah's son and other children when two men dressed in white (understood to be angels) came to him. They laid him down gently, opened his chest, and removed his heart. From the heart, they extracted a black clot, saying, "This is the portion of Satan in you." They then washed his heart with Zamzam water in a golden basin and returned it to his chest, leaving no mark.

The other children ran to Halimah, saying, "Muhammad has been killed!" When she rushed to him, she found him standing, pale but unharmed. This event, mentioned in authentic hadith collections, was a spiritual purification preparing him for his future role as a prophet. Muhammad himself later referred to this event when asked about his protection from Satan, explaining that Allah had purified his heart.

Halimah, frightened by this event and fearing for Muhammad's safety, decided to return him to his mother in Mecca, though she had intended to keep him longer. She explained to Aminah what had happened, but Aminah reassured her, saying that she had seen signs during her pregnancy that indicated her son was destined for something great and that he would be protected by Allah.

The Loss of His Mother

Muhammad remained with his mother Aminah in Mecca until he was six years old. Despite her widowhood and limited means, Aminah cared for her son with great love and attention. She would tell him stories about his father and his noble lineage, instilling in him a sense of identity and pride in his heritage.

When Muhammad was six years old, his mother Aminah decided to take him to Medina (then called Yathrib) to visit his father's grave and to visit her relatives from the Banu Najjar clan. The journey of approximately 450 kilometers was undertaken with Umm Ayman (Barakah), the loyal servant woman who had cared for Muhammad since his birth and would remain devoted to him throughout his life.

They stayed in Yathrib for about a month, during which Aminah showed Muhammad his father's grave and introduced him to his maternal relatives. The young Muhammad played with the children of Yathrib and learned to swim in their pools—a skill that would serve him well in later life. This visit created an early connection between Muhammad and the city that would later become his home and the base of the Islamic state.

On the return journey to Mecca, at a place called Abwa (about halfway between Mecca and Medina), Aminah fell seriously ill. Despite Umm Ayman's care, her condition deteriorated rapidly. Aminah, knowing she was dying, entrusted her six-year-old son to Umm Ayman's care and passed away. She was buried at Abwa, leaving the young Muhammad doubly orphaned—without father or mother.

The trauma of losing his mother at such a young age, after already having lost his father before birth, left a deep impression on Muhammad. Umm Ayman later reported that the young boy wept bitterly at his mother's grave. This personal experience of loss and orphanhood would profoundly influence his later teachings about the importance of caring for orphans, widows, and the vulnerable in society. The Quran would later address him directly: "Did He not find you an orphan and give you shelter?" (Quran 93:6)

Under the Care of Abd al-Muttalib

Umm Ayman brought the orphaned Muhammad back to Mecca, where he was taken into the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, who was then around eighty years old. Abd al-Muttalib was the chief of the Quraysh and one of the most respected men in Mecca. He had been the one who had rediscovered the well of Zamzam, which had been buried and lost for centuries, and he held the prestigious position of providing water to pilgrims visiting the Kaaba.

Abd al-Muttalib showed extraordinary affection for his grandson, treating him with a special tenderness that was noticed by all. He would have a special carpet spread for him in the shade of the Kaaba, and while his own sons would sit around the carpet out of respect, he would invite young Muhammad to sit with him on the carpet. When his sons tried to move Muhammad away, Abd al-Muttalib would say, "Leave my son alone, for by Allah, he has a great future."

The elderly chief would take Muhammad with him to the assemblies of Quraysh leaders, and the boy would listen to discussions of tribal affairs, trade, and politics. This early exposure to leadership and decision-making would later serve Muhammad well in his role as a prophet and statesman. Abd al-Muttalib also ensured that Muhammad learned about his noble lineage and the history of his ancestors, instilling in him a sense of dignity and responsibility.

However, this period of stability was short-lived. When Muhammad was eight years old (some narrations say ten), Abd al-Muttalib fell ill and, sensing his approaching death, called his sons to his bedside. He entrusted the care of Muhammad to his son Abu Talib, Muhammad's paternal uncle, saying, "Take care of this orphan, for his father and mother are dead. Be to him better than a father and better than a mother." Abu Talib, though not wealthy, accepted this responsibility with love and dedication, promising to care for Muhammad as he would care for his own children.

Life in Abu Talib's Household

Abu Talib, though he was the brother of Muhammad's father Abdullah, was not a wealthy man. Unlike some of his brothers who had inherited wealth or engaged in profitable trade, Abu Talib had a large family to support and limited means. Nevertheless, he welcomed Muhammad into his household and treated him with exceptional kindness and love, fulfilling his father's dying wish.

Muhammad grew up alongside Abu Talib's children, particularly Ali, who was born when Muhammad was about thirty years old and would later become one of his closest companions and son-in-law. Abu Talib's wife, Fatimah bint Asad, treated Muhammad as her own son, and Muhammad would later say of her, "She was my mother after my mother," and when she died, he ensured she was buried with great honor.

Despite the poverty of Abu Talib's household, Muhammad never complained or felt deprived. Instead, he learned the values of patience, gratitude, and contentment with little. He would help with household chores and later began working to contribute to the family's income. This humble upbringing, free from the corruption that often accompanied wealth and privilege, shaped his character and prepared him for his future role as a prophet who would champion the cause of the poor and oppressed.

Youth and Character Development

Early Work as a Shepherd

Growing up in the household of Abu Talib, Muhammad learned the trade of commerce and accompanied his uncle on trading journeys. Despite the poverty of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad was treated with love and respect. From an early age, he was known for his exceptional character, earning the titles "Al-Amin" (The Trustworthy) and "Al-Sadiq" (The Truthful) among the Meccans.

As a young man, Muhammad worked as a shepherd, tending sheep in the hills around Mecca. This humble occupation, shared by many prophets before him including Moses, David, and others, taught him patience, responsibility, contemplation, and compassion for those under his care. The solitude of shepherding provided time for reflection and observation of nature, developing his contemplative nature and spiritual awareness.

He later said, "Allah did not send any prophet who was not a shepherd." When asked if he too had been a shepherd, he replied, "Yes, I used to tend sheep for the people of Mecca for some Qirats (a small wage)." (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 37, Hadith 5) This work, though humble, was formative. Shepherding required vigilance, as the shepherd had to protect the flock from predators and thieves while guiding them to good pasture and water. These skills—protection, guidance, and care for those entrusted to one's responsibility—would later be essential in his role as a prophet and leader of the Muslim community.

The experience of shepherding also taught Muhammad about leadership through service rather than domination. A good shepherd leads from within the flock, not by driving the sheep with force but by guiding them with gentleness and wisdom. This model of servant leadership would characterize his later approach to leading the Muslim community.

The Journey to Syria with Abu Talib

When Muhammad was about twelve years old (some narrations say nine), Abu Talib decided to take him on a trading caravan to Syria. This was Muhammad's first journey outside Arabia, and it would prove to be significant in several ways. The caravan traveled north through the desert, following the ancient trade routes that connected Arabia with the civilizations of the Levant.

During this journey, the caravan stopped at Busra (or Bostra), a town in southern Syria. There lived a Christian monk named Bahira (also called Sergius or Georgius in some accounts), who was known for his knowledge of ancient scriptures and his piety. Bahira lived in a monastery and rarely paid attention to the passing caravans, but on this occasion, he noticed something unusual.

According to the traditional accounts, Bahira saw a cloud that seemed to follow and shade one particular member of the caravan—the young Muhammad. When the caravan rested under a tree, Bahira observed that the tree's branches bent down to provide shade for Muhammad. Recognizing these as signs mentioned in ancient scriptures about the coming of a prophet, Bahira invited the caravan members to a meal.

When they gathered, Bahira looked carefully at each person, searching for the one who bore the signs of prophethood. He asked if everyone from the caravan was present, and they replied that they had left the youngest among them to guard the camels and supplies. Bahira insisted that he be brought as well. When Muhammad arrived, Bahira observed him carefully, noting his appearance and behavior.

Bahira then asked Muhammad questions about his life, his dreams, and his habits. He examined him and found the "seal of prophethood" (a distinctive mark) between his shoulders—a sign mentioned in ancient scriptures. Bahira then turned to Abu Talib and asked about his relationship to the boy. When Abu Talib said, "He is my son," Bahira replied, "He is not your son. This boy's father must be dead." Abu Talib admitted, "He is my nephew, and his father died while his mother was pregnant with him."

Bahira then warned Abu Talib: "Take your nephew back to his country and guard him carefully against the Jews, for by Allah, if they see him and recognize what I have recognized in him, they will plot evil against him. Great things are in store for this nephew of yours." Abu Talib, taking this warning seriously, completed his business quickly and returned to Mecca with Muhammad, keeping him close and protected.

This encounter with Bahira served multiple purposes: it confirmed Muhammad's special destiny, it demonstrated that knowledge of the coming prophet existed in other religious traditions, and it established early in his life that he was recognized by people of knowledge and piety as someone extraordinary.

Development of Character and Reputation

Muhammad was known for his honesty in all dealings, his kindness to the poor and needy, and his habit of meditation and reflection. He never participated in the idol worship that was prevalent in Mecca, nor did he engage in the drinking, gambling, and immoral practices common in pre-Islamic Arabian society. Even before prophethood, he was recognized as a man of exceptional moral character.

His reputation for truthfulness was so well-established that people would entrust him with their valuables for safekeeping, knowing they would be returned safely. In a society where tribal loyalty often trumped honesty, and where deception in trade was common, Muhammad's unwavering integrity stood out remarkably. He never lied, even in jest, and never broke a promise.

He was also known for his modesty and humility. Unlike many young men of Quraysh who boasted of their exploits and sought attention, Muhammad was quiet and reserved, speaking only when necessary and always with wisdom and kindness. He avoided the gatherings where young men would engage in frivolous talk, drinking, and gambling. Instead, he was often found in contemplation or helping those in need.

His compassion extended to all of creation. He was kind to animals, gentle with children, respectful to elders, and generous to the poor. He would help widows with their chores, assist orphans, and show kindness to slaves—behaviors that were unusual in a society that often treated these groups with contempt or indifference.

Even in his youth, Muhammad showed wisdom beyond his years. He was consulted in matters of dispute and was known for his fair judgment. His advice was sought by both young and old, and his opinions were respected even by the elders of Quraysh. This combination of moral integrity, wisdom, and compassion earned him the titles "Al-Amin" (The Trustworthy) and "Al-Sadiq" (The Truthful)—titles that would remain with him throughout his life and would be acknowledged even by his enemies.

Participation in Hilf al-Fudul

When Muhammad was about twenty years old, he participated in a significant event that demonstrated his commitment to justice and his opposition to oppression. A man from the Zubayd tribe came to Mecca to sell his goods to Al-As ibn Wa'il, a wealthy and powerful merchant. After the transaction, Al-As refused to pay the agreed price, and the Zubaydi man had no tribal protection in Mecca to help him seek justice.

The Zubaydi man stood near the Kaaba and called out, appealing to the sense of honor of the Quraysh, reciting poetry about the injustice done to him. This incident moved several noble men of Quraysh, including Al-Zubayr ibn Abd al-Muttalib (Muhammad's uncle), to form an alliance called Hilf al-Fudul (The Alliance of the Virtuous or The Pact of the Virtuous).

This alliance was formed in the house of Abdullah ibn Jud'an, and its members pledged to stand together to protect the oppressed, ensure justice for the wronged, and oppose tyranny in Mecca, regardless of whether the victim was a Meccan or a stranger, a powerful person or a weak one. They vowed to restore rights to those who had been wronged and to stand against oppressors, even if the oppressor was from their own tribe.

Muhammad participated in this alliance, and he would later say about it, even after becoming a prophet: "I witnessed in the house of Abdullah ibn Jud'an an alliance that was more beloved to me than a herd of red camels [the most valuable possession in Arabia]. If I were called to it now in Islam, I would respond." (Musnad Ahmad) This statement shows that Muhammad recognized the value of standing for justice and protecting the oppressed, even in the pre-Islamic period, and that such noble causes were consistent with Islamic values.

The Hilf al-Fudul demonstrated Muhammad's early commitment to social justice and his willingness to stand against oppression—values that would become central to his prophetic message. It also showed his ability to work with others for a common good cause, transcending tribal loyalties for the sake of justice.

Marriage to Khadijah

Khadijah's Business and Reputation

At the age of 25, Muhammad's reputation for honesty and trustworthiness led Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, a wealthy and respected businesswoman of Mecca, to hire him to manage her trade caravan to Syria. Khadijah was a remarkable woman in pre-Islamic Arabian society—a successful merchant who had inherited her father's business and expanded it through her intelligence, business acumen, and integrity.

Khadijah was a widow, fifteen years Muhammad's senior, who had been married twice before. Both her previous husbands had died, leaving her with children and considerable wealth. Despite her wealth and noble lineage (she was from the Banu Asad clan of Quraysh), she managed her own business affairs—unusual for women in that society. She was known as "Tahirah" (The Pure One) for her chastity and moral character, and she was respected by the Meccan elite for her wisdom and business success.

Many wealthy and powerful men of Quraysh had sought her hand in marriage, attracted by her wealth, beauty, and status. However, Khadijah had refused all proposals, preferring to maintain her independence and focus on her business. She employed agents to trade on her behalf, paying them a commission from the profits.

The Syrian Trading Journey

When Khadijah heard of Muhammad's reputation for honesty, trustworthiness, and business skill, she offered him employment to take her merchandise to Syria. She offered him double the commission she usually paid her agents, recognizing his exceptional character. Muhammad accepted the offer, and Abu Talib encouraged him, seeing it as an excellent opportunity.

Khadijah sent her trusted servant, Maysarah, to accompany Muhammad and observe how he conducted business. The caravan journey to Syria took several weeks, traveling through the harsh desert terrain. During this journey, Maysarah observed Muhammad's character closely—his honesty in dealings, his fair treatment of others, his wisdom in negotiations, and his trustworthiness in handling Khadijah's goods.

According to traditional accounts, Maysarah witnessed several remarkable occurrences during the journey. He saw that two angels shaded Muhammad from the intense sun as they traveled. When they rested at a place where a Christian monk lived, the monk told Maysarah that no one had sat under that particular tree except prophets, observing that Muhammad bore the signs of prophethood.

The trading mission was extraordinarily successful. Muhammad's honest dealings, fair negotiations, and business wisdom resulted in profits far exceeding what Khadijah's caravans usually earned. When the caravan returned to Mecca, Maysarah gave Khadijah a detailed account of the journey, describing not only the exceptional business success but also Muhammad's character and the unusual events he had witnessed.

The Proposal and Marriage

Impressed by his character and abilities, Khadijah found herself drawn to Muhammad. She saw in him not just an honest employee but a man of exceptional character, wisdom, and spiritual depth. She recognized qualities in him that transcended worldly success—a nobility of soul and purity of character that was rare in Meccan society.

Khadijah proposed marriage to Muhammad through her friend Nufaysah bint Munya. Despite the age difference and the fact that she was wealthier and from a more established family, Muhammad accepted. Muhammad consulted with his uncles, particularly Abu Talib, who was delighted with the match. Abu Talib himself delivered the marriage sermon, praising both families and highlighting Muhammad's noble character and lineage, despite his lack of wealth.

The marriage took place in approximately 595 CE. Abu Talib represented Muhammad in the marriage contract, and Khadijah's uncle Amr ibn Asad represented her. The mahr (dowry) was twenty young camels, which Abu Talib helped Muhammad provide.

A Partnership of Love and Respect

Their marriage was one of deep love, mutual respect, and true partnership. Khadijah would become not only his wife but his closest confidante, strongest supporter, and the first person to believe in his prophethood. Khadijah was not just Muhammad's wife but his closest friend and advisor. She understood his contemplative nature and supported his spiritual inclinations. When he would retreat for meditation, she would prepare provisions for him and never complained about his absences.

Muhammad, for his part, treated Khadijah with exceptional love and respect. He helped with household chores, consulted her on important matters, and valued her opinions. Their relationship was characterized by mutual consultation (shura), emotional intimacy, and spiritual companionship. He would later say that she was one of the four perfect women in history, along with Mary (mother of Jesus), Asiya (wife of Pharaoh), and his daughter Fatimah.

Their Children

During their 25 years of marriage, Khadijah bore Muhammad several children. Their sons, al-Qasim (from whom Muhammad received the kunya "Abu al-Qasim") and Abdullah (also called al-Tayyib and al-Tahir), died in infancy, as was common in that era. The loss of their sons was deeply painful for both Muhammad and Khadijah, but they bore this trial with patience and faith.

Their daughters were Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah, all of whom survived to adulthood. Muhammad was an exceptionally loving and attentive father to his daughters, treating them with tenderness and respect in a society that often devalued girls. All four daughters would accept Islam and make the Hijra to Medina. Through Fatimah, Muhammad's lineage would continue, and all his descendants trace their lineage through her.

Khadijah's wealth provided Muhammad with financial security, allowing him time for contemplation and spiritual reflection. The fifteen years between their marriage (595 CE) and the beginning of revelation (610 CE) were years of preparation for his prophetic mission. He established himself as a respected member of Meccan society, known for his integrity, wisdom, and moral character, while remaining distinct by never participating in idol worship or the immoral practices common among the Quraysh elite.

The Reconstruction of the Kaaba

The Need for Rebuilding

When Muhammad was 35 years old, a significant event occurred that demonstrated his wisdom and problem-solving abilities. The Kaaba, the ancient house of worship built by Prophets Abraham and Ishmael, had stood for centuries and had suffered damage over time. A major flood had weakened its structure, causing cracks in the walls and threatening its stability. The Quraysh, as custodians of the Kaaba, decided that it needed to be rebuilt to preserve this sacred structure.

The Kaaba at that time was a simple stone structure without a roof, and its walls were only about the height of a man. The Quraysh decided to rebuild it with a roof and make it taller and stronger. However, they faced a dilemma: they wanted to use only "pure" wealth for this sacred task, excluding any money earned through usury, prostitution, or other immoral means. This significantly limited their resources, so they decided to make the Kaaba smaller than its original Abrahamic foundations, leaving out the northern section (known as al-Hijr Ismail).

The Dispute Over the Black Stone

The reconstruction proceeded with each clan of Quraysh taking responsibility for one section of the walls. They worked together, with even the leaders and nobles carrying stones and participating in the construction—a rare display of unity and cooperation. However, when the walls reached the point where the Black Stone (al-Hajar al-Aswad) needed to be placed back in its position, a serious dispute arose.

The Black Stone, believed to have come from Paradise and given to Abraham, was the most sacred object associated with the Kaaba. Each clan wanted the honor of placing it in its position, as this would bring them prestige and honor. The dispute grew heated, with each clan claiming this right based on their nobility, their role as custodians, or their contributions to the reconstruction.

The disagreement threatened to escalate into violence. The clans began to form alliances and prepare for conflict. The Banu Abd al-Dar brought a bowl filled with blood, and they and their allies dipped their hands in it, swearing an oath to fight to the death over this issue. For four or five days, the situation remained tense, with Mecca on the brink of civil war.

Muhammad's Wise Solution

Finally, the eldest among them, Abu Umayyah ibn al-Mughirah, proposed a solution: they would accept the judgment of the first person to enter the sanctuary the next morning. Everyone agreed to this arbitration, relieved to have found a way to avoid bloodshed.

The next morning, the first person to enter was Muhammad ibn Abdullah. When they saw him, they exclaimed with joy and relief, "This is al-Amin (the Trustworthy), we are pleased with him; this is Muhammad!" Even at the age of 35, before his prophethood, Muhammad's reputation for fairness, wisdom, and trustworthiness was so well-established that all parties immediately accepted him as an arbitrator.

Muhammad listened carefully to the dispute, understanding both the importance of the Black Stone and the pride of each clan. Then, demonstrating remarkable wisdom and diplomatic skill, he proposed a solution that satisfied everyone. He asked for a cloak to be brought and spread on the ground. He then placed the Black Stone in the center of the cloak and asked a representative from each major clan to hold an edge of the cloak.

Together, they lifted the stone to the appropriate height. This solution was brilliant in its simplicity: every clan participated equally in the honor of raising the Black Stone, and no single clan could claim superiority over the others. When the stone reached the right position, Muhammad himself took it and placed it in its designated spot in the eastern corner of the Kaaba.

This solution prevented bloodshed and civil war, further enhancing Muhammad's reputation for wisdom and fairness. It demonstrated his ability to find creative solutions to seemingly intractable problems, his diplomatic skills in managing competing interests, and his concern for unity and peace. These qualities would later prove essential in his role as a prophet and leader of the Muslim community.

The incident of the Black Stone also demonstrated the respect and trust that the Quraysh had for Muhammad, even before his prophethood. They recognized in him a man of exceptional character and judgment, someone who could be trusted to be fair and wise. This reputation would later make his claim to prophethood more credible to some, though it would also make his message more threatening to those whose interests were challenged by Islam.

The Call to Prophethood

Spiritual Preparation and Contemplation

The Practice of Tahannuth

As Muhammad approached the age of forty, he increasingly felt drawn to solitude and contemplation. He would often retreat to the Cave of Hira (Ghar Hira), located on Mount Jabal al-Nour (Mountain of Light), about two miles from Mecca. There, he would spend days and nights in meditation, reflecting on the creation of the universe, the purpose of life, and the corruption and injustice he saw in Meccan society.

This practice of spiritual retreat (tahannuth) was not uncommon among those seeking truth in pre-Islamic Arabia. The term tahannuth refers to the practice of devotion and withdrawal from worldly affairs for spiritual purposes. Some scholars suggest it was a remnant of the Abrahamic tradition that had survived in Arabia, practiced by the hanifs—those who rejected idol worship and sought the pure monotheism of Abraham.

Muhammad would take provisions with him—usually dates, water, and simple food prepared by Khadijah—and spend extended periods in the cave, sometimes a whole month, particularly during the month of Ramadan. Khadijah supported these retreats wholeheartedly, understanding her husband's spiritual nature and his quest for truth. She would sometimes visit him, bringing fresh provisions, and she never complained about his long absences or his need for solitude.

The Cave of Hira

The Cave of Hira is a small cave, barely large enough for a person to sit or lie down, located near the summit of Jabal al-Nour. The climb to reach it is steep and challenging, taking about an hour of difficult hiking. The cave's entrance faces toward the Kaaba, and from its opening, one can see the city of Mecca spread below.

The isolation and austerity of the cave provided the perfect environment for deep contemplation. Away from the noise and distractions of city life, surrounded by the stark beauty of the desert mountains, Muhammad would spend his time in reflection and meditation. The silence of the cave, broken only by the wind and the occasional call of birds, created a space for spiritual awareness and inner transformation.

Contemplations and Spiritual State

During these periods of contemplation, Muhammad pondered the fundamental questions of existence. He reflected on the creation of the heavens and the earth, the alternation of day and night, the mountains and valleys, the stars in their courses. He contemplated the purpose of human life, the nature of good and evil, and the ultimate destiny of the soul.

He was deeply troubled by the idol worship prevalent in Mecca. The Kaaba, built by Abraham as a house for the worship of the One God, had been filled with 360 idols. The Quraysh and other Arab tribes would worship these idols, make offerings to them, and seek their intercession, despite the obvious fact that these stone and wood figures could neither hear nor respond. Muhammad, with his pure fitrah (natural disposition), found this practice absurd and offensive.

He was also troubled by the social injustices he witnessed: the exploitation of the poor by the wealthy, the mistreatment of slaves, the burial of infant daughters alive, the endless tribal warfare, the oppression of orphans and widows, and the general moral decay of society. The strong oppressed the weak, the wealthy exploited the poor, and might made right. There seemed to be no higher moral law, no accountability, no justice beyond the power of the sword and the loyalty of the tribe.

Muhammad felt a deep spiritual yearning, a sense that there must be more to existence than the material world and tribal loyalties. He sensed the presence of a higher reality, a divine purpose behind creation, a moral order that transcended human conventions. Yet he did not know how to access this truth or how to bring about the transformation that society so desperately needed.

True Dreams and Spiritual Signs

In the months leading up to the first revelation, Muhammad began experiencing true dreams (ru'ya sadiqah). These dreams were vivid and clear, and whatever he saw in them would come to pass exactly as he had seen it, like the breaking of dawn. This phenomenon, mentioned in authentic hadith, was a form of spiritual preparation, opening his consciousness to receive divine communication.

He also began to experience a deep love for solitude and an aversion to the frivolous gatherings and immoral practices of Meccan society. He would hear greetings of peace from stones and trees, though he saw no one. These experiences, while initially puzzling, were preparing him spiritually for the momentous event that was about to transform his life.

Khadijah noticed these changes in her husband. She saw his increasing need for solitude, his deep contemplation, his spiritual sensitivity. Rather than being concerned or trying to dissuade him, she supported and encouraged him, recognizing that he was undergoing a profound spiritual transformation. Her support during this period was crucial, providing him with the emotional security and material support he needed to pursue his spiritual quest.

The First Revelation

In the month of Ramadan in the year 610 CE, when Muhammad was forty years old, the Angel Gabriel (Jibril) appeared to him in the Cave of Hira. This encounter would mark the beginning of his prophethood and the revelation of the Quran.

According to authentic narrations, the Angel Gabriel appeared in his true form and commanded Muhammad: "Iqra!" (Read! or Recite!). Muhammad, who could neither read nor write, responded, "I cannot read." The angel embraced him tightly until he could bear it no more, then released him and repeated the command. This happened three times, and then the angel recited the first verses of divine revelation:

"Read in the name of your Lord who created. Created man from a clinging substance. Read, and your Lord is the Most Generous. Who taught by the pen. Taught man that which he knew not." (Quran 96:1-5)

These first verses emphasized knowledge, learning, and the importance of reading and writing—revolutionary concepts in a largely illiterate society. They established that all knowledge comes from Allah and that human beings have the capacity to learn and grow through divine guidance.

Khadijah's Support and Waraqah's Confirmation

Deeply shaken by this overwhelming experience, Muhammad returned home trembling and asked Khadijah to cover him. He told her, "I fear for myself." Khadijah's response demonstrated her deep understanding of her husband's character. She reassured him: "Never! By Allah, Allah will never disgrace you. You maintain family ties, you bear the burden of the weak, you help the poor and needy, you serve your guests generously, and you assist those who are afflicted with calamities." (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 1, Hadith 3)

Khadijah then took Muhammad to her cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal, an elderly Christian scholar who was knowledgeable in the scriptures. After hearing Muhammad's account, Waraqah confirmed: "This is the same angel (Gabriel) whom Allah sent to Moses. I wish I were young and could live until the time when your people will drive you out." Muhammad was surprised and asked, "Will they drive me out?" Waraqah replied, "Yes, no man has ever brought something similar to what you have brought without being treated with hostility. If I should remain alive until that day, I will support you strongly." (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 1, Hadith 3)

Khadijah became the first person to accept Islam, believing in Muhammad's prophethood without hesitation. Her unwavering support during the early, difficult years of Islam was crucial to the survival and growth of the new faith. She used her wealth to support the nascent Muslim community and provided emotional and spiritual support to the Prophet during times of intense persecution.

The Early Believers

Following Khadijah's acceptance of Islam, the next converts came from Muhammad's closest family and friends. Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's young cousin who lived in his household, was among the first to accept Islam, being only about ten years old at the time. Abu Bakr, Muhammad's closest friend and a respected merchant, also accepted Islam early and would become instrumental in spreading the message.

Abu Bakr's conversion was particularly significant because of his influence in Meccan society. He was known for his knowledge of Arab genealogy, his business acumen, and his respected position among the Quraysh. Through Abu Bakr's efforts, several prominent Meccans accepted Islam, including Uthman ibn Affan, Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, and Talhah ibn Ubaydullah—men who would later become pillars of the Muslim community.

Zayd ibn Harithah, who had been enslaved and then freed and adopted by Muhammad, was also among the early believers. His acceptance of Islam demonstrated the universal nature of the message, transcending social status and origin. Other early converts included Bilal ibn Rabah, an Abyssinian slave who would later become the first muezzin (caller to prayer) of Islam.

The Meccan Period (610-622 CE)

Three Years of Secret Preaching

For the first three years after receiving revelation, Muhammad preached Islam privately, sharing the message only with those he trusted. This period of secret da'wah (invitation to Islam) allowed the early Muslim community to establish itself and grow in faith before facing the inevitable opposition from Meccan society.

During this time, the small group of believers would meet secretly in the house of al-Arqam ibn Abi al-Arqam, located near the Kaaba. This house, known as Dar al-Arqam, became the first center of Islamic learning and organization. Here, the Prophet would teach the Quran, explain the principles of Islam, and prepare his followers for the challenges ahead.

The revelations during this period focused on fundamental Islamic beliefs: the Oneness of Allah (Tawhid), the Day of Judgment, the importance of prayer and moral conduct, and the rejection of idol worship. The early Meccan surahs of the Quran are characterized by their powerful, poetic language and their emphasis on spiritual and moral transformation.

Public Declaration and Opposition

In the fourth year of prophethood, Muhammad received the divine command to proclaim his message publicly: "Therefore proclaim openly that which you are commanded, and turn away from the polytheists." (Quran 15:94) He climbed Mount Safa and called out to the various clans of Quraysh. When they gathered, he asked them, "If I were to tell you that an army was advancing to attack you from the valley on the other side of this mountain, would you believe me?" They replied, "Yes, we have never known you to tell a lie." He then declared, "I am a warner to you in face of a terrifying punishment."

This public declaration marked a turning point. The Quraysh leadership, particularly Abu Lahab (Muhammad's uncle) and Abu Jahl, became openly hostile. They saw Islam as a threat to their economic interests (the Kaaba pilgrimage brought significant revenue), their social status, and their ancestral traditions. The opposition intensified as more people, especially from lower social classes and slaves, began accepting Islam.

The Nature of Meccan Opposition

Stages of Opposition

The Quraysh employed various strategies to stop the spread of Islam, escalating their tactics as each approach failed. They first tried mockery and ridicule, calling Muhammad a poet, a madman, or a sorcerer. They spread false rumors about him and the Quran, trying to discredit his message. They would stand at the roads leading to Mecca during pilgrimage season, warning visitors not to listen to Muhammad, claiming he would bewitch them with his words and turn them against their fathers and tribes.

When mockery failed to stop the growth of Islam, they attempted bribery. A delegation of Quraysh leaders, including Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, came to Muhammad with an offer: "If you want wealth, we will collect money for you until you become the richest among us. If you want honor, we will make you our chief. If you want kingship, we will make you our king. If what comes to you is a jinn that you cannot control, we will find you a physician and spend our wealth until you are cured."

Muhammad's response was to recite verses from Surah Fussilat (Chapter 41), which speak of Allah's signs in creation and warn of consequences for those who reject the truth. When he reached the verse about prostration, he prostrated, and Utbah was so moved by the beauty and power of the Quran that he returned to his companions in a changed state. They asked, "What happened?" He replied, "I heard words that I have never heard before. By Allah, it is neither poetry, nor sorcery, nor soothsaying. O Quraysh, listen to me and leave this man alone."

However, the other leaders rejected Utbah's advice. They then made their final offer through Abu Talib. They said to Muhammad: "By Allah, if you put the sun in my right hand and the moon in my left on condition that I abandon this course, I would not abandon it until Allah has made it victorious, or I perish therein." Muhammad then turned to leave, tears in his eyes. Abu Talib called him back and said, "Go, my nephew, and say what you please. By Allah, I will never forsake you."

Physical Persecution of Vulnerable Muslims

When persuasion and bribery failed, the Quraysh turned to persecution. While Muhammad himself was protected by his uncle Abu Talib and the Banu Hashim clan, his followers, especially those without tribal protection, faced severe torture and abuse. Slaves and the poor were particularly vulnerable, as they had no clan to defend them or seek revenge on their behalf.

Bilal ibn Rabah's Ordeal

Bilal ibn Rabah, an Abyssinian slave owned by Umayyah ibn Khalaf, endured some of the most brutal torture. When Umayyah discovered that Bilal had accepted Islam, he would take him out to the desert at noon—the hottest time of day—strip him, and make him lie on the burning sand. Then he would place a massive boulder on Bilal's chest, so heavy that Bilal could barely breathe.

Umayyah would say, "You will stay like this until you die or you renounce Muhammad and worship al-Lat and al-Uzza." Despite the excruciating pain, Bilal would respond with only one word: "Ahad, Ahad" (One, One—referring to Allah's oneness). His voice would grow weaker, but his faith never wavered. Sometimes they would tie a rope around his neck and have children drag him through the streets of Mecca, over rocks and thorns, while he continued to say "Ahad, Ahad."

This torture continued for days until Abu Bakr, passing by and seeing Bilal's suffering, purchased him from Umayyah and immediately freed him. Bilal became one of the closest companions of the Prophet and would later be chosen as the first muezzin (caller to prayer) in Islam, his voice that had proclaimed Allah's oneness under torture now calling believers to prayer.

The Family of Yasir

Yasir ibn Amir, his wife Sumayyah bint Khayyat, and their son Ammar ibn Yasir were among the early converts to Islam. They were from the weak and unprotected members of society, making them prime targets for persecution. The family of Abu Jahl, one of Islam's fiercest enemies, would take them to the desert in the intense midday heat and torture them.

They would be made to lie on the burning sand, beaten with whips, and subjected to various forms of physical abuse. The torture was designed not just to cause pain but to break their spirits and force them to renounce Islam. The Prophet would pass by them during their torture, and though his heart ached for them, he lacked the power to physically protect them. He could only offer them words of comfort and hope: "Patience, O family of Yasir! Your appointed place is Paradise." (Mustadrak al-Hakim)

Sumayyah, despite being an elderly woman, refused to renounce her faith. Abu Jahl, enraged by her steadfastness, took a spear and thrust it through her private parts, killing her. Sumayyah bint Khayyat thus became the first martyr in Islam, dying for her faith with unwavering conviction. Her husband Yasir was also tortured to death shortly after.

Their son Ammar survived, though he was tortured so severely that at one point, under extreme duress, he uttered words of disbelief while his heart remained firm in faith. When he came to the Prophet in tears, distressed by what he had been forced to say, Allah revealed verses confirming that those who are compelled under torture while their hearts remain firm in faith are not held accountable: "Whoever disbelieves in Allah after his belief... except for one who is forced while his heart is secure in faith." (Quran 16:106)

Khabbab ibn al-Aratt's Torture

Khabbab ibn al-Aratt was a blacksmith and an early convert to Islam. His master and other Quraysh would torture him by heating iron rods in his own forge and then pressing them against his back. They would also make him lie on burning coals, placing rocks on his chest so he couldn't escape, until the fat from his back would extinguish the coals.

Years later, during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab, Khabbab showed the scars on his back—the flesh had been so badly burned that it never healed properly, leaving permanent disfigurement. Despite this horrific torture, Khabbab never renounced his faith. He would later participate in the Battle of Badr and other major events in Islamic history.

Torture of Other Early Muslims

• Khabbab's mother was tortured by having her hair tied to a camel, which was then made to run, dragging her across the rocky ground.

• Lubaynah, a female slave, was beaten so severely that she lost her eyesight. When the Quraysh mocked her, saying that al-Lat and al-Uzza had blinded her, she replied, "Al-Lat and al-Uzza can neither harm nor benefit. My Lord has done this, and He can restore my sight if He wills." Allah restored her sight, and the Quraysh claimed it was Muhammad's magic.

• Zunayrah was another female slave who was tortured until she lost her sight. Abu Bakr purchased and freed her as well.

• Nahdiyah and her daughter were slaves who were tortured. Abu Bakr purchased and freed them.

• Umm Ubays was tortured by the Banu Makhzum. Abu Bakr purchased and freed her too.

Abu Bakr spent much of his wealth purchasing and freeing slaves who were being tortured for their faith. His father, Abu Quhafah, who had not yet accepted Islam, once criticized him for freeing weak slaves instead of strong ones who could protect him. Abu Bakr replied, "O my father, I only seek what I seek," meaning he sought Allah's pleasure, not worldly benefit.

Psychological and Social Persecution

Beyond physical torture, the Quraysh employed psychological warfare and social persecution:

Economic Boycott: Muslims were boycotted economically. No one was to trade with them, buy from them, or sell to them. This made it difficult for Muslims to earn a living or purchase necessities.

Social Ostracism: Muslims were socially isolated. They were mocked in public gatherings, their reputations were slandered, and false accusations were spread about them. Family members who accepted Islam were disowned and disinherited.

Harassment and Intimidation: Muslims were harassed in the streets, their homes were vandalized, and they were prevented from praying at the Kaaba. Garbage and animal entrails would be thrown at them, especially at the Prophet when he prayed.

Attempts to Discredit the Message: The Quraysh would send people to interrupt the Prophet when he recited the Quran, making noise and mocking to prevent others from hearing. They spread rumors that the Quran was poetry, sorcery, or tales of the ancients copied from previous scriptures.

The Boycott of Banu Hashim

When the Quraysh realized that persecution of individual Muslims was not stopping the spread of Islam, and that Abu Talib refused to withdraw his protection from Muhammad, they decided on a more drastic measure: a complete boycott of the entire Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib clans (the latter supported Banu Hashim out of tribal solidarity, even though most had not accepted Islam).

In the seventh year of prophethood (around 616-617 CE), the Quraysh drew up a document, which they hung inside the Kaaba, declaring a total boycott. The terms were severe:

1. No one should marry women from these clans or give them women in marriage
2. No one should buy from them or sell to them
3. No one should have any social or economic dealings with them
4. The boycott would continue until they handed over Muhammad to be killed

The two clans, numbering about 40 families, were forced to withdraw to Shi'b Abi Talib, a valley on the outskirts of Mecca owned by Abu Talib. For three years, they lived under siege, cut off from the rest of Meccan society. The conditions were harsh:

• Hunger: Food supplies dwindled. They survived on whatever they had stored and whatever sympathetic individuals could smuggle to them. The cries of hungry children could be heard from outside the valley.

• Poverty: Unable to trade, their economic situation deteriorated. Wealthy members of the clan shared what they had with the poor, but resources were limited.

• Isolation: Cut off from social interaction, marriages, and normal life, the psychological toll was severe.

• Humiliation: The Quraysh would sometimes allow food caravans to enter Mecca but prevent them from selling to the boycotted clans, forcing them to watch as others purchased supplies they desperately needed.

During the pilgrimage seasons, when the boycott was temporarily relaxed to avoid embarrassment before other Arab tribes, some Muslims would try to purchase supplies. However, Quraysh merchants would inflate prices to unaffordable levels. Abu Lahab, Muhammad's uncle and enemy, would follow Muslim buyers and offer double the price, forcing the seller to sell to him instead, then leave the goods, ensuring the Muslims couldn't buy anything.

The Prophet and his family ate leaves from trees when nothing else was available. The sound of children crying from hunger was heartbreaking. Yet the Muslims remained steadfast, and the clans refused to hand over Muhammad.

Breaking of the Boycott

After three years, the boycott began to crumble. Some Quraysh members, particularly those with family ties to the boycotted clans, began to feel uncomfortable with the injustice. Hisham ibn Amr, who had relatives in the boycotted clans, began working secretly to end it.

He approached Zuhayr ibn Abi Umayyah, whose mother was from Banu Hashim, and said, "Are you content to eat food and wear clothes while your uncles are in the state you know? By Allah, if they were the uncles of Abu al-Hakam ibn Hisham [Abu Jahl] and you asked him to do what he asked you to do, he would never agree to it."

Zuhayr agreed to help. They recruited three other men: Al-Mut'im ibn Adi, Abu al-Bakhtari ibn Hisham, and Zam'ah ibn al-Aswad. These five men went to the Kaaba and publicly denounced the boycott as unjust. When Abu Jahl tried to defend it, they outnumbered him.

Then Al-Mut'im went to retrieve the boycott document from inside the Kaaba. When he unrolled it, he found that termites had eaten the entire document except for the words "Bismika Allahumma" (In Your Name, O Allah)—the opening phrase. The Prophet had earlier told Abu Talib that Allah had sent termites to eat the document, leaving only Allah's name. This miraculous sign helped convince the Quraysh to end the boycott.

The boycott was lifted in the tenth year of prophethood, but the damage had been done. The three years of hardship had taken a toll on the health of many, including Khadijah, who would pass away shortly after.

The First Migration to Abyssinia

As persecution intensified in 615 CE, the Prophet advised some of his followers to migrate to Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia), where the Christian king, the Negus (An-Najashi), was known for his justice. This first migration included about 15 Muslims, including Uthman ibn Affan and his wife Ruqayyah (the Prophet's daughter).

When the Quraysh learned of this, they sent emissaries with gifts to the Negus, asking him to return the Muslims. However, the Negus summoned the Muslims and asked them about their religion. Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, who spoke on behalf of the Muslims, explained: "O King, we were a people in a state of ignorance and immorality, worshipping idols and eating the flesh of dead animals, committing all sorts of abomination and shameful deeds, breaking the ties of kinship, treating guests badly, and the strong among us exploited the weak. Then Allah sent us a Prophet, one of our own people, whose lineage, truthfulness, trustworthiness, and integrity were well-known to us."

Ja'far then recited verses from Surah Maryam (Chapter 19) about the Virgin Mary and Jesus, which moved the Negus to tears. He declared, "This and what Jesus brought have come from the same source," and refused to hand over the Muslims to the Quraysh. A second, larger migration to Abyssinia followed, with about 100 Muslims seeking refuge there.

The Year of Sorrow (619 CE)

The tenth year of prophethood, 619 CE, is known as the Year of Sorrow (Am al-Huzn) because Muhammad lost two of his greatest supporters: his beloved wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib.

Khadijah had been Muhammad's companion for 25 years, his first believer, his emotional support, and the mother of his children. Her death left Muhammad deeply grieved. She had stood by him through the most difficult times, using her wealth to support the Muslim community and providing unwavering emotional support. The Prophet said of her, "She believed in me when people disbelieved in me, she trusted me when people belied me, she supported me with her wealth when people deprived me, and Allah blessed me with children from her while depriving me of children from other women." (Musnad Ahmad)

Abu Talib's death was equally significant, though in a different way. Despite never accepting Islam himself, Abu Talib had protected Muhammad from the Quraysh through his position as clan leader. With his death, Muhammad lost this crucial protection, and the persecution intensified. Abu Lahab, another uncle who was hostile to Islam, became the new leader of Banu Hashim and withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad.

The Journey to Ta'if

Following these losses, Muhammad traveled to the nearby city of Ta'if, hoping to find support for his message. He walked approximately 60 miles to reach the city, accompanied only by his adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah. However, the leaders of Ta'if not only rejected his message but also incited their children and slaves to mock him and throw stones at him.

Muhammad and Zayd were forced to flee, with Muhammad bleeding from the stone-throwing. They took shelter in an orchard belonging to two Meccan nobles. It was here that Muhammad made one of his most famous supplications, demonstrating his patience and trust in Allah: "O Allah, to You I complain of my weakness, my lack of resources, and my lowliness before mankind. O Most Merciful, You are the Lord of the weak, and You are my Lord. To whom do You entrust me? To a stranger who receives me with hostility? Or to an enemy to whom You have given power over me? If You are not angry with me, I do not care. Your favor is more expansive for me. I seek refuge in the Light of Your Face by which all darkness is dispelled and every affair of this world and the next is set right, lest Your anger or Your displeasure descends upon me. I desire Your pleasure and satisfaction until You are pleased. There is no power and no might except by You."

The Angel Gabriel then appeared to Muhammad with the Angel of the Mountains, who said, "O Muhammad, if you wish, I will crush them between these two mountains." But Muhammad replied, "No, I hope that Allah will bring forth from their descendants people who will worship Allah alone, associating nothing with Him." (Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 54, Hadith 454) This response exemplified his mercy and his long-term vision for the spread of Islam.

The Night Journey and Ascension (Isra and Mi'raj)

Context and Timing

Around this time, following the Year of Sorrow and the rejection at Ta'if, Muhammad experienced one of the most significant events in Islamic history: the Night Journey and Ascension (Isra and Mi'raj). This miraculous journey occurred approximately one year before the Hijra, in the month of Rajab, during one of the darkest periods of the Prophet's mission.

The timing of this journey was significant. Muhammad had lost his beloved wife Khadijah and his protective uncle Abu Talib. He had been rejected and physically harmed at Ta'if. The persecution in Mecca continued unabated. In this moment of apparent weakness and isolation, Allah honored His Prophet with a journey that would demonstrate his elevated status and provide him with spiritual strength for the challenges ahead.

The Night Journey (Isra) - From Mecca to Jerusalem

The Beginning

One night, as Muhammad was sleeping in the Hijr Ismail (the semi-circular area adjacent to the Kaaba), or according to some narrations, in the house of Umm Hani (his cousin), the Angel Gabriel came to him. Gabriel was accompanied by another angel, and they brought with them a creature called al-Buraq.

Al-Buraq was a white animal, larger than a donkey but smaller than a mule, with wings on its sides. Its name comes from the Arabic word "barq" (lightning), referring to its incredible speed. The Prophet described it as a creature that could place its hoof at the farthest point its eye could see. Al-Buraq had been used by previous prophets for their journeys.

According to some narrations, before the journey began, Gabriel opened Muhammad's chest (as had been done in his childhood), removed his heart, washed it with Zamzam water, and filled it with wisdom and faith, preparing him for what he was about to witness.

The Journey to Jerusalem

Muhammad mounted al-Buraq, and in an instant, they traveled from Mecca to Jerusalem—a journey that normally took about a month by caravan. During this journey, Gabriel stopped at certain locations and asked Muhammad to pray. These stops included:

1. Yathrib (Medina): Gabriel said, "Pray here," and Muhammad prayed two rak'ahs. Gabriel then said, "This is Taybah (Medina), and to it you will migrate."

2. Mount Sinai: Gabriel said, "Pray here," and Muhammad prayed. Gabriel said, "This is where Allah spoke to Moses."

3. Bethlehem: Gabriel said, "Pray here," and Muhammad prayed. Gabriel said, "This is where Jesus was born."

These stops symbolically connected Muhammad to the previous prophets and the sacred history of monotheism, emphasizing the continuity of the prophetic message.

At Al-Aqsa Mosque

When they arrived in Jerusalem, Muhammad dismounted at the site of Al-Aqsa Mosque (the Farthest Mosque). He tied al-Buraq to a ring at the gate—the same ring where previous prophets had tied their mounts. This detail emphasizes the continuity of prophethood and Muhammad's connection to the prophets who came before him.

Inside Al-Aqsa Mosque, Muhammad found all the previous prophets gathered, waiting for him. They included Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets sent by Allah throughout history. When the time for prayer came, Gabriel indicated that Muhammad should lead them. Muhammad led all the prophets in prayer, symbolizing his role as the final prophet and the seal of prophethood.

This moment was profoundly significant: the final messenger leading all previous messengers in prayer at the third holiest site in Islam. It demonstrated the unity of the prophetic message and Muhammad's position as the culmination of that message.

The Ascension (Mi'raj) - From Jerusalem to the Heavens

Ascending Through the Seven Heavens

From Jerusalem, Muhammad began his ascension through the seven heavens. Gabriel accompanied him, and at each heaven, they had to request permission to enter. The angels guarding each heaven would ask, "Who is it?" Gabriel would reply, "Gabriel." They would ask, "Who is with you?" He would say, "Muhammad." They would ask, "Has he been sent for?" Gabriel would confirm, "Yes." Then they would say, "Welcome! What an excellent visit!" and grant them entry.

The First Heaven: In the first heaven, Muhammad met Adam, the father of humanity. Adam welcomed him, saying, "Welcome, O righteous son and righteous prophet." Muhammad saw souls passing by Adam—when souls of the righteous passed on his right, Adam would smile and say, "A good soul from a good body." When souls of the wicked passed on his left, Adam would weep and say, "An evil soul from an evil body." This vision showed Muhammad the reality of human accountability and the consequences of righteousness and wickedness.

The Second Heaven: In the second heaven, Muhammad met two maternal cousins: John the Baptist (Yahya) and Jesus (Isa), sons of two sisters. They welcomed him as a righteous brother and prophet. Jesus, whom many Christians believe to be divine, welcomed Muhammad as a fellow prophet, emphasizing the Islamic understanding of Jesus as a human messenger of Allah, not divine.

The Third Heaven: In the third heaven, Muhammad met Joseph (Yusuf), son of Jacob. Joseph was described as having been given half of all beauty. He welcomed Muhammad warmly. Joseph's story of patience through trials and eventual triumph would have resonated with Muhammad's own situation.

The Fourth Heaven: In the fourth heaven, Muhammad met Idris (Enoch), whom Allah had raised to a high station. The Quran mentions Idris as a prophet of truth and patience. He welcomed Muhammad and prayed for his success.

The Fifth Heaven: In the fifth heaven, Muhammad met Aaron (Harun), the brother of Moses and a prophet in his own right. Aaron was beloved by his people and known for his eloquence and support of his brother Moses. He welcomed Muhammad warmly.

The Sixth Heaven: In the sixth heaven, Muhammad met Moses (Musa), one of the greatest prophets and the one to whom the Torah was revealed. Moses welcomed him, but when Muhammad passed by to continue his ascension, Moses wept. When asked why he wept, Moses said, "I weep because a young man has been sent after me whose followers will enter Paradise in greater numbers than my followers." This showed Moses's concern for his people and his recognition of Muhammad's special status.

The Seventh Heaven: In the seventh heaven, Muhammad met Abraham (Ibrahim), the father of monotheism and the one who built the Kaaba. Abraham was described as reclining with his back against al-Bayt al-Ma'mur (the Frequented House), a structure in the seventh heaven directly above the Kaaba. Every day, 70,000 angels enter it to worship, never to return to it again, showing the vastness of Allah's creation and the multitude of His worshippers.

Abraham welcomed Muhammad warmly, saying, "Welcome, O righteous son and righteous prophet." The meeting with Abraham was particularly significant, as Muhammad's mission was to restore the pure monotheism of Abraham, which had been corrupted in Arabia.

Beyond the Seventh Heaven

From the seventh heaven, Muhammad continued his ascension to realms beyond human comprehension. He reached Sidrat al-Muntaha (the Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary), which marks the limit of creation beyond which no created being, not even Gabriel, can pass. The tree was described as having leaves like elephant ears and fruits like large clay jugs. Four rivers flowed from its base: two hidden rivers of Paradise and two manifest rivers (identified as the Nile and Euphrates in their spiritual reality).

Gabriel said, "This is as far as I can go. If I go any further, I will be burned. But you continue." This moment emphasized the unique status of Muhammad—even the greatest of angels could not accompany him to the divine presence.

Muhammad continued alone into the presence of Allah. What transpired in this meeting is known only to Allah and His Prophet. The Quran describes it with restraint: "The heart did not lie about what it saw. Will you then dispute with him about what he saw? And he certainly saw him in another descent at the Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary, near which is the Garden of Refuge, when there covered the Lote Tree that which covered it. The sight did not swerve, nor did it transgress. He certainly saw of the greatest signs of his Lord." (Quran 53:11-18)

During this meeting, Allah prescribed the five daily prayers for Muslims. Initially, fifty prayers were prescribed. As Muhammad descended and passed by Moses in the sixth heaven, Moses asked, "What has your Lord enjoined upon your community?" Muhammad replied, "Fifty prayers." Moses, drawing from his experience with the Children of Israel, said, "Go back to your Lord and ask Him to reduce it, for your community will not be able to bear that. I tested the Children of Israel and know their capacity."

Muhammad returned and asked for a reduction. Allah reduced it to forty-five. Moses again advised him to ask for a reduction. This continued, with Muhammad going back and forth between Moses and Allah, until the prayers were reduced to five. Moses still advised him to ask for further reduction, but Muhammad said, "I have asked my Lord until I am ashamed. I am content and I submit." Then a voice called out: "I have decreed My obligation and have lightened the burden on My servants. Each good deed will be rewarded tenfold." Thus, five prayers performed would be rewarded as if fifty were performed.

This interaction showed several important lessons: the mercy of Allah in making religious obligations manageable, the wisdom of Moses from his experience, Muhammad's humility and shame to keep asking, and the generous reward system of Islam where good deeds are multiplied.

Visions of Paradise and Hell

During his journey, Muhammad was also shown Paradise and Hell. He saw the rewards awaiting the righteous and the punishments awaiting the wicked. These visions included:

• The People of Paradise: He saw their dwellings, their beauty, and their eternal bliss. He saw rivers of milk, honey, and wine (which does not intoxicate), and fruits of every kind.

• The People of Hell: He saw various punishments for different sins. He saw those who ate usury (interest) with bellies swollen like houses. He saw those who backbit others having their lips cut with scissors of fire. He saw those who committed adultery being offered beautiful meat but choosing rotten meat instead (symbolizing their preference for the forbidden over the lawful). He saw those who didn't pay zakat being burned by their own wealth.

These visions served to reinforce the reality of the afterlife and the importance of righteous conduct in this world.

The Return and Reaction

The Return to Mecca

Muhammad returned to Mecca the same night, before dawn. The entire journey—from Mecca to Jerusalem, through the seven heavens to the divine presence, and back to Mecca—occurred in a portion of one night. When he awoke, he found his bed still warm and a cup of water he had knocked over still spilling.

Telling the Quraysh

The next morning, Muhammad told the Quraysh about his night journey. Their reaction was one of mockery and disbelief. They said, "Do you claim that you went to Jerusalem and came back in one night, when it takes us a month to go there and a month to return?"

Some Muslims who had weak faith apostatized upon hearing this account, unable to accept such a miraculous claim. The Quraysh rushed to Abu Bakr, saying, "Your companion claims that he went to Jerusalem and came back in one night!" They expected Abu Bakr to reject this claim and abandon Muhammad.

Abu Bakr's response was immediate and unwavering: "If he said it, then it is true." They said, "Do you believe him when he says he went to Jerusalem and came back in one night?" Abu Bakr replied, "Yes, I believe him in what is even more extraordinary than that—the news of heaven coming to him at any time of day or night." From this moment, Abu Bakr earned the title "As-Siddiq" (The Truthful, The One Who Believes).

Proof of the Journey

To prove his journey, Muhammad described the Al-Aqsa Mosque in detail, though he had never been there before in his physical life. The Quraysh brought people who had been to Jerusalem to verify his description. Muhammad described the mosque, its doors, its surroundings, and its features with perfect accuracy, amazing those who had been there.

He also told them about a caravan he had seen on his return journey. He described its location, the color of its camels, and said it would arrive in Mecca at sunrise from a particular direction. Everything happened exactly as he described, providing physical evidence of his miraculous journey.

Spiritual Significance

The Isra and Mi'raj held profound spiritual significance:

1. Divine Honor: At his lowest point, Allah honored Muhammad with a journey no other human had experienced, demonstrating his elevated status.

2. Spiritual Strength: The journey provided Muhammad with spiritual strength and certainty to face the coming challenges.

3. Connection to Previous Prophets: Meeting all the prophets and leading them in prayer emphasized the continuity and unity of the prophetic message.

4. Prescription of Prayer: The five daily prayers, the most important pillar of Islam after faith, were prescribed during this journey, emphasizing their significance.

5. Reality of the Unseen: The journey demonstrated the reality of the unseen world, the afterlife, and the spiritual realm beyond physical existence.

6. Test of Faith: The journey tested the faith of Muslims—those with weak faith apostatized, while those with strong faith, like Abu Bakr, believed without hesitation.

The Isra and Mi'raj remains one of the most significant events in Islamic history, commemorated annually by Muslims worldwide, and serving as a reminder of the Prophet's special status and the reality of the spiritual realm.

The Hijra and Establishment in Medina (622 CE)

The Pledge of Aqabah

In 620 CE, during the pilgrimage season, Muhammad met six men from the Khazraj tribe of Yathrib (later renamed Medina). They accepted Islam and returned to Yathrib, spreading the message. The following year, twelve men from Yathrib came to Mecca and took the First Pledge of Aqabah, promising to worship Allah alone, avoid theft, adultery, infanticide, and slander, and to obey the Prophet in all that is good.

In 622 CE, seventy-three men and two women from Yathrib came to Mecca and took the Second Pledge of Aqabah, this time pledging not only to follow Islam but also to protect Muhammad as they would protect their own families. This pledge included a commitment to fight in defense of Islam if necessary. The Prophet sent Mus'ab ibn Umayr to Yathrib to teach the Quran and Islam, preparing the city for the arrival of the Muslim community.

The Migration (Hijra)

The Assassination Plot

As the situation in Mecca became increasingly dangerous, with the Quraysh plotting to assassinate Muhammad, Allah gave permission for the Muslims to migrate to Yathrib. The migration (Hijra) began gradually, with Muslims leaving Mecca in small groups to avoid suspicion. By the time Muhammad himself prepared to leave, most of the Muslims had already migrated, leaving behind their homes, businesses, and possessions.

The Quraysh, realizing that Muhammad's departure would mean the end of their control over the Muslim community and fearing the establishment of a Muslim state in Yathrib, plotted to kill him. They held a council at Dar al-Nadwah (the Assembly House) to devise a plan. Various suggestions were made: exile him, imprison him, or kill him. They rejected exile and imprisonment, fearing he would gather followers elsewhere and return stronger.

Finally, Abu Jahl proposed a cunning plan: select one young, strong man from each clan of Quraysh, arm them with swords, and have them strike Muhammad simultaneously. This way, his blood would be on the hands of all the clans, making it impossible for Banu Hashim to seek revenge against any single clan. They would have to accept blood money instead, which the Quraysh would pay collectively. The council agreed to this plan, and the night of execution was set.

The assassins, numbering about eleven men from different clans, gathered outside Muhammad's house after nightfall. They waited for him to fall asleep so they could break in and kill him in his bed. However, Allah informed Muhammad of their plot through revelation: "And remember when those who disbelieved plotted against you to restrain you or kill you or evict you. But they plan, and Allah plans. And Allah is the best of planners." (Quran 8:30)

The Night of Migration

On the night of the planned assassination, Muhammad implemented a counter-plan. He asked his cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to sleep in his bed, wearing his green cloak—the same cloak Muhammad usually wore. Ali, though aware of the danger, agreed without hesitation, demonstrating his courage and devotion. Muhammad assured him that no harm would come to him.

As the assassins watched the house, they saw a figure lying in Muhammad's bed, covered with his distinctive green cloak, and assumed it was him. They waited for the household to fall asleep before breaking in. Meanwhile, Muhammad, accompanied by Abu Bakr, left through a back window while the assassins waited outside the front door.

As Muhammad passed by the assassins, he recited verses from Surah Ya-Sin: "And We have put before them a barrier and behind them a barrier and covered them, so they do not see." (Quran 36:9) According to the narration, Allah caused the assassins to be unable to see Muhammad as he walked right past them. He even took a handful of dust and sprinkled it on their heads as he passed.

In the morning, when the assassins finally broke into the house, they found Ali in the bed instead of Muhammad. They realized they had been deceived. Ali calmly informed them that Muhammad had left, and they rushed out to search for him, furious at being outwitted.

The Cave of Thawr

Muhammad and Abu Bakr traveled south toward the Cave of Thawr, opposite to the direction of Yathrib, to throw off pursuers. The cave was located in Mount Thawr, about five miles south of Mecca. The climb was difficult, especially at night, and Abu Bakr's feet bled from the rocky terrain. They reached the cave before dawn and decided to hide there for three days until the initial search died down.

Abu Bakr entered the cave first to ensure it was safe. He found several holes in the cave walls and, fearing they might contain snakes or scorpions that could harm the Prophet, he tore pieces from his garment and plugged the holes. When one hole remained and he had no more cloth, he placed his foot over it. Then he invited Muhammad to enter and rest.

As Muhammad slept with his head on Abu Bakr's lap, a snake or scorpion in the hole bit Abu Bakr's foot. The pain was excruciating, but Abu Bakr remained motionless, not wanting to disturb the Prophet's rest. His tears fell on Muhammad's face, waking him. When Muhammad saw what had happened, he applied his saliva to the wound, and the pain immediately subsided. This incident demonstrated Abu Bakr's extraordinary devotion and the Prophet's blessed healing touch.

The Search

The Quraysh, desperate to find Muhammad, announced a reward of 100 camels (a fortune) for anyone who brought him back, dead or alive. Trackers and bounty hunters scoured the area around Mecca. The Quraysh search parties followed tracks leading south and eventually reached the Cave of Thawr.

As the searchers approached the cave, Abu Bakr became extremely anxious. He whispered to Muhammad, "If any of them looks down at his feet, he will see us." The searchers were so close that Abu Bakr could see their feet from inside the cave. Muhammad, calm and confident in Allah's protection, replied with words that have become famous in Islamic history: "What do you think of two, the third of whom is Allah? Do not grieve; indeed Allah is with us." (Quran 9:40)

According to tradition, Allah had caused a spider to spin a web across the cave entrance and a dove to nest there, laying eggs. When the searchers reached the cave, they saw the spider web intact and the dove sitting peacefully on its nest. One of them said, "There's no point checking this cave. The spider web was here before Muhammad was even born, and look at the dove—if anyone had entered, it would have flown away." They turned back without investigating further, passing within feet of the two men inside.

This miraculous protection demonstrated Allah's care for His Prophet and became a powerful symbol of divine intervention. The spider web, spun in hours, and the dove's nest, built in a day, provided more protection than an army could have offered.

Abdullah ibn Urayqit - The Guide

While hiding in the cave, Muhammad and Abu Bakr had arranged for Abdullah ibn Urayqit, a skilled tracker and guide who was still a polytheist but was known for his trustworthiness, to bring them two camels and meet them at the cave after three days. This decision to hire a non-Muslim guide demonstrated Muhammad's wisdom in recognizing competence and trustworthiness regardless of religious affiliation.

Abu Bakr's son Abdullah would visit them at night, bringing news from Mecca, then return before dawn so his absence wouldn't be noticed. Abu Bakr's servant, Amir ibn Fuhayrah, would bring a flock of sheep to the cave at night, providing milk for them to drink. In the morning, he would graze the sheep over their tracks, erasing any evidence of human activity around the cave.

After three days, when the initial search had died down, Abdullah ibn Urayqit arrived with two camels. One was for Muhammad, and one was for Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr offered his she-camel, al-Qaswa, to the Prophet, but Muhammad insisted on paying for it, saying, "I will not ride an animal that is not mine." This demonstrated his principle of not accepting gifts that might create obligations, even from his closest friend.

The Journey to Yathrib

They set out from the cave, taking a longer, less-traveled coastal route to avoid the main roads where the Quraysh would be watching. The journey, which normally took about 8-11 days by the main route, would take them longer, but it was safer.

The Pursuit of Suraqah ibn Malik

Despite their precautions, they were spotted. Suraqah ibn Malik, a skilled horseman and tracker, saw them and, tempted by the reward of 100 camels, set out in pursuit. He was mounted on a fast horse and quickly gained on them.

As Suraqah drew near, Abu Bakr kept looking back anxiously, saying, "O Messenger of Allah, we have been overtaken!" But Muhammad remained calm, repeating, "Do not grieve; indeed Allah is with us." When Suraqah came close enough to throw his spear, Muhammad prayed, and suddenly Suraqah's horse's legs sank into the ground up to its belly, though the ground was solid rock. The horse couldn't move despite Suraqah's efforts.

Suraqah, terrified, called out, "O Muhammad, I know this is your doing! Pray to your Lord to free my horse, and I swear by al-Lat and al-Uzza that I will turn back and mislead anyone who comes searching for you!" Muhammad prayed, and the horse was freed. But Suraqah, still tempted by the reward, pursued them again. Again, his horse's legs sank into the ground. This happened three times.

After the third time, Suraqah realized he was fighting against divine will. He called out, "O Muhammad, I see that you are protected. I will not harm you, and I will turn back anyone who comes after you. But give me a guarantee of safety for when you become victorious." Muhammad asked Ali (who had caught up with them) to write a guarantee of safety for Suraqah on a piece of leather or bone.

Suraqah returned to Mecca and, true to his word, told anyone who asked that he had searched in that direction and found nothing. Years later, after the conquest of Mecca, Suraqah came to Muhammad with the written guarantee. Muhammad honored it and welcomed him. Suraqah eventually accepted Islam and lived to see the expansion of the Islamic state. During the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab, Suraqah was given the golden bracelets of the Persian emperor Khosrow, fulfilling Muhammad's prophecy that Islam would conquer Persia.

Arrival at Quba

After an eight-day journey, they arrived at Quba, on the outskirts of Yathrib, on the 12th of Rabi' al-Awwal (September 24, 622 CE). This date marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (1 AH - After Hijra), though the calendar itself was established later during the caliphate of Umar ibn al-Khattab.

The Muslims of Yathrib had been waiting eagerly for the Prophet's arrival. Every morning, they would go out to the outskirts of the city, watching the road from Mecca, waiting until the heat of midday forced them to return to their homes. On the day of his arrival, after they had returned home, a Jewish man who had climbed a palm tree to work saw the travelers approaching. He called out, "O Banu Qayla! Your fortune has arrived!" (Banu Qayla was a reference to the Aws and Khazraj tribes).

The Muslims rushed out to welcome the Prophet. The scene was one of joy and celebration. Men, women, and children lined the streets. Young girls sang songs of welcome:

"The full moon has risen upon us
From the valley of Wada'
Gratitude is incumbent upon us
As long as one caller calls to Allah"

This song, known as "Tala'a al-Badru Alayna," is still sung by Muslims worldwide in celebration of the Prophet.

Building the First Mosque

Muhammad's first act upon arriving at Quba was to build a mosque—the first mosque in Islam, Masjid Quba. He participated in its construction himself, carrying stones and working alongside the companions. This mosque is mentioned in the Quran: "A mosque founded on righteousness from the first day is more worthy for you to stand in." (Quran 9:108)

The Prophet stayed in Quba for several days, during which Ali ibn Abi Talib arrived, having completed his mission in Mecca. Muhammad had instructed Ali to stay behind to return the items that people had entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping—even his enemies had trusted him with their valuables. Ali returned everything to its rightful owners before making the journey to Yathrib, demonstrating the Islamic principle of fulfilling trusts even to one's enemies.

Entry into Medina

After a few days in Quba, Muhammad set out for the main city of Yathrib on a Friday. When the time for Friday prayer came, he stopped in the valley of Ranuna, in the territory of Banu Salim ibn Awf, and led the first Jumu'ah (Friday congregational prayer) in Islamic history. About 100 Muslims participated in this historic prayer.

Then he continued toward the city. The Ansar (Helpers—the Muslims of Yathrib) competed for the honor of hosting him. Everyone wanted the Prophet to stay in their home. As he rode through the streets, people would grab the reins of his camel, saying, "Stay with us, O Messenger of Allah! We have strength, protection, and wealth!"

Muhammad would reply kindly, "Let her go, for she is under command," referring to his camel, al-Qaswa. He had decided to let the camel roam freely, trusting that Allah would guide it to the right place. The camel walked through the streets of the city until it reached a plot of land used for drying dates, belonging to two orphan boys, Sahl and Suhayl, who were under the guardianship of As'ad ibn Zurarah. There, the camel knelt down.

Muhammad dismounted and asked, "Whose land is this?" When told it belonged to the two orphans, he said, "I will buy it from them to build a mosque." The orphans, honored that the Prophet wanted their land, offered it as a gift, but Muhammad insisted on paying them fairly, demonstrating the Islamic principle of not taking advantage of others, even in religious matters.

This site would become Masjid an-Nabawi (the Prophet's Mosque), one of the holiest sites in Islam. The mosque was built with the Prophet and the companions working together, carrying mud bricks and stones, singing work songs to maintain their spirits during the labor. The Prophet's living quarters were built adjacent to the mosque, simple rooms made of palm trunks and mud bricks, with roofs of palm leaves.

The Hijra was complete. The Muslims now had a home, a base from which Islam could grow and flourish. The city of Yathrib would be renamed "Madinat an-Nabi" (The City of the Prophet), or simply "Medina" (The City). A new chapter in Islamic history had begun.

Establishing the Muslim Community in Medina

Upon arriving in Medina, Muhammad's first act was to build a mosque at Quba, the first mosque in Islam. He then entered Medina proper, where he was welcomed with great enthusiasm. The women and children sang songs of welcome, and the Ansar (Helpers—the Muslims of Medina) competed for the honor of hosting him. Muhammad let his camel roam freely, saying he would stay wherever it knelt. The camel stopped at a plot of land belonging to two orphans, where the Prophet's Mosque (Masjid an-Nabawi) would be built.

One of Muhammad's first major acts in Medina was the establishment of the Constitution of Medina, a remarkable document that created a pluralistic society. This constitution defined the rights and duties of all citizens, including Muslims, Jews, and pagans. It established principles of religious freedom, mutual defense, and justice, creating a unified community (ummah) while respecting diversity. The constitution stated: "The Jews who attach themselves to our commonwealth deserve our help and support so long as they are not wronged or harmed. They shall have equal rights with our people to our assistance and good offices."

Muhammad also established the bond of brotherhood (mu'akhah) between the Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca) and the Ansar (Helpers of Medina). Each Ansari was paired with a Muhajir, sharing their homes, wealth, and resources. This created strong bonds of Islamic brotherhood that transcended tribal loyalties. The generosity of the Ansar was remarkable; they offered to share their date palm groves and even proposed divorcing one of their wives so the Muhajirun could marry them. The Muhajirun, however, preferred to work and earn their own living, with the Prophet encouraging them to engage in trade and agriculture.

Major Events and Battles in Medina

The Battle of Badr (624 CE / 2 AH)

The Battle of Badr was the first major military encounter between the Muslims and the Quraysh. In Ramadan of 2 AH, Muhammad received intelligence that a large Quraysh trade caravan led by Abu Sufyan was returning from Syria with significant wealth. The Muslims, numbering about 313 men, set out to intercept it.

Abu Sufyan, learning of the Muslim plan, sent word to Mecca for reinforcements. The Quraysh army, numbering about 1,000 well-equipped warriors, marched out to protect their caravan and crush the Muslim community. Although Abu Sufyan managed to divert the caravan to safety, the Quraysh army, led by Abu Jahl, decided to proceed to Badr to demonstrate their military superiority.

Before the battle, Muhammad consulted with his companions, demonstrating his practice of shura (consultation). The Ansar, through their spokesman Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, pledged their full support, saying, "By Allah, if you were to lead us into the sea, we would follow you into it." This consultation and the enthusiastic response strengthened the resolve of the Muslim army.

The battle took place on the 17th of Ramadan, 2 AH (March 13, 624 CE). Despite being outnumbered three to one and poorly equipped, the Muslims achieved a decisive victory. Seventy Quraysh warriors were killed, including Abu Jahl and other leaders, while seventy were captured. The Muslims lost only fourteen martyrs. This victory was seen as a divine intervention, with the Quran stating: "And you did not kill them, but it was Allah who killed them. And you threw not when you threw, but it was Allah who threw." (Quran 8:17)

The Battle of Badr had profound psychological and strategic implications. It boosted Muslim morale, established the credibility of the Muslim state, and demonstrated that the new faith could defend itself militarily. The prisoners were treated humanely, with many being released for ransom or in exchange for teaching literacy to Muslim children—a remarkable emphasis on education even in the context of war.

The Battle of Uhud (625 CE / 3 AH)

The Quraysh, seeking revenge for their defeat at Badr, assembled an army of 3,000 warriors, including cavalry and archers, and marched toward Medina. The Battle of Uhud took place on the 7th of Shawwal, 3 AH (March 23, 625 CE), near Mount Uhud, just outside Medina.

Muhammad positioned fifty archers on a strategic hill with strict orders not to leave their position under any circumstances. Initially, the battle went in favor of the Muslims, and the Quraysh army began to retreat. However, seeing the apparent victory, most of the archers disobeyed orders and left their position to collect war booty. Khalid ibn al-Walid (who was still fighting for the Quraysh at this time) seized this opportunity and attacked from the rear, turning the tide of battle.

The Muslims suffered significant casualties, including Hamzah ibn Abdul Muttalib, the Prophet's uncle and one of the bravest Muslim warriors. Muhammad himself was injured, with his tooth broken and his face wounded. Rumors spread that he had been killed, causing panic among some Muslims. However, when they saw him alive, their spirits were restored.

Despite the setback, the Quraysh did not press their advantage and returned to Mecca. The Battle of Uhud taught the Muslims important lessons about discipline, obedience to leadership, and the consequences of disobeying orders. The Quran addressed this battle, reminding believers: "And Allah certainly fulfilled His promise to you when you were killing them by His permission until you lost courage and disputed about the order and disobeyed after He had shown you that which you love. Among you are some who desire this world, and among you are some who desire the Hereafter." (Quran 3:152)

The Battle of the Trench (627 CE / 5 AH)

In 5 AH, the Quraysh formed a coalition with several other tribes, assembling an army of approximately 10,000 warriors—the largest force ever gathered against the Muslims. This confederacy marched toward Medina with the intention of destroying the Muslim community once and for all.

Upon learning of this massive army, Muhammad consulted with his companions. Salman al-Farsi, a Persian companion, suggested digging a trench (khandaq) around the vulnerable parts of Medina—a defensive strategy unknown to the Arabs but common in Persia. The Muslims worked day and night for six days to dig the trench, with the Prophet himself participating in the labor.

When the confederate army arrived, they were surprised by the trench, which prevented their cavalry from charging. The Battle of the Trench (also known as the Battle of the Confederates or Al-Ahzab) became a siege lasting about two weeks. During this time, the Muslims faced not only the external threat but also treachery from within, as the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza broke their treaty with the Muslims and allied with the confederates.

The situation was dire, with the Quran describing it: "When they came at you from above you and from below you, and when eyes shifted and hearts reached the throats, and you assumed about Allah various assumptions. There the believers were tested and shaken with a severe shaking." (Quran 33:10-11)

However, Muhammad's diplomatic skills and strategic thinking prevailed. He sent Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud, a new convert whose conversion was not yet known to the confederates, to sow discord among the enemy ranks. Nu'aym successfully created mistrust between the Quraysh and Banu Qurayza. Additionally, Allah sent a severe windstorm that destroyed the enemy camp, overturned their tents, and extinguished their fires. Demoralized and unable to cross the trench, the confederate army disbanded and returned home. The Muslims had successfully defended Medina without a major battle.

The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE / 6 AH)

In 6 AH, Muhammad had a dream in which he saw himself and his companions performing pilgrimage to the Kaaba. Acting on this vision, he set out for Mecca with about 1,400 Muslims, unarmed and in pilgrim's garb (ihram), demonstrating their peaceful intentions. However, the Quraysh refused to allow them to enter Mecca and sent negotiators to turn them back.

After tense negotiations at a place called Hudaybiyyah, just outside Mecca, a treaty was concluded. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah included several terms that initially seemed unfavorable to the Muslims:

1. The Muslims would return to Medina without performing pilgrimage that year
2. They could return the following year for three days to perform pilgrimage
3. A ten-year truce would be established between Mecca and Medina
4. Any person from Mecca who went to Medina without permission would be returned, but not vice versa
5. Arab tribes were free to ally with either side

Many companions, including Umar ibn al-Khattab, were initially disappointed by these terms, feeling they were too favorable to the Quraysh. However, the treaty proved to be a strategic victory for the Muslims. The Quran called it "a clear victory" (Fath Mubin), and indeed it was. The treaty provided several crucial benefits:

• It gave the Muslims legitimacy and recognition as a political entity
• The ten-year peace allowed Islam to spread freely throughout Arabia
• Many Quraysh members, including Khalid ibn al-Walid and Amr ibn al-As, converted to Islam during this period
• The Muslims could focus on consolidating their position and spreading their message without constant military threats

The treaty also demonstrated Muhammad's wisdom in accepting short-term concessions for long-term strategic gains. Within two years, the treaty's benefits became apparent, and the Muslim community grew significantly in strength and numbers.

The Conquest of Khaybar (628 CE / 7 AH)

Following the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the Muslims turned their attention to Khaybar, a wealthy Jewish settlement north of Medina that had become a center of opposition to Islam. The Jewish tribes there had been involved in inciting various Arab tribes against the Muslims and had played a role in organizing the confederate army during the Battle of the Trench.

The conquest of Khaybar was significant both militarily and economically. After a siege lasting several weeks, the fortresses of Khaybar fell one by one. The Jewish inhabitants were allowed to remain on their lands and continue farming in exchange for giving half their produce to the Muslim state. This arrangement was mutually beneficial and demonstrated the Islamic principle of treating non-Muslim subjects fairly.

During this campaign, Muhammad married Safiyyah bint Huyayy, the daughter of a Jewish chief, after she accepted Islam. This marriage, like many of the Prophet's marriages, had political and social dimensions, creating bonds between different communities and demonstrating the inclusive nature of Islam.

The Conquest of Mecca (630 CE / 8 AH)

In 8 AH, the Quraysh violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah by supporting their allies in an attack on a tribe allied with the Muslims. This breach gave Muhammad the justification to march on Mecca. He assembled an army of 10,000 Muslims and advanced toward Mecca in Ramadan of 8 AH (January 630 CE).

The Conquest of Mecca was achieved with minimal bloodshed, demonstrating Muhammad's preference for peace and reconciliation over revenge. As the Muslim army approached, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the Quraysh, came out to negotiate. He accepted Islam and was given assurances of safety. Muhammad declared that anyone who entered Abu Sufyan's house, or the Kaaba, or remained in their own homes with doors closed, would be safe.

When Muhammad entered Mecca, he did so with humility, his head bowed so low that it almost touched his camel's saddle, reciting verses from the Quran: "Indeed, We have given you a clear conquest, that Allah may forgive for you what preceded of your sin and what will follow." (Quran 48:1-2)

His first act was to go to the Kaaba and, using his staff, point to each of the 360 idols surrounding it, reciting: "Truth has come, and falsehood has departed. Indeed, falsehood is bound to depart." (Quran 17:81) The idols were removed, and the Kaaba was purified and restored to its original purpose as a house of monotheistic worship.

In a remarkable display of mercy and forgiveness, Muhammad granted a general amnesty to the Meccans who had persecuted him and the Muslims for years. Standing at the door of the Kaaba, he asked the assembled Meccans, "What do you think I will do with you?" They replied, "You are a noble brother, son of a noble brother." He declared, "Go, for you are free." This act of forgiveness, known as the "Day of Mercy," led to mass conversions to Islam.

Only a handful of individuals who had committed particularly heinous crimes were excluded from the amnesty, and even some of these were later pardoned when they sought forgiveness. This conquest marked the end of Meccan opposition to Islam and the beginning of Islam's rapid spread throughout Arabia.

The Battle of Hunayn and the Siege of Ta'if (630 CE / 8 AH)

Shortly after the conquest of Mecca, the tribes of Hawazin and Thaqif, fearing Muslim expansion, assembled a large army to confront the Muslims. The Battle of Hunayn took place in the valley of Hunayn, between Mecca and Ta'if.

The Muslim army, now numbering 12,000 (including 2,000 new converts from Mecca), initially felt confident due to their numbers. However, the enemy launched a surprise attack at dawn, causing initial panic among the Muslims. The Quran references this moment: "Allah has already given you victory in many regions and on the day of Hunayn, when your great number pleased you, but it did not avail you at all, and the earth was confining for you with its vastness; then you turned back, fleeing." (Quran 9:25)

Muhammad, along with a small group of steadfast companions, stood firm and called the fleeing Muslims back. His uncle Abbas, who had a powerful voice, called out to the Muslims, reminding them of their pledges. The Muslims regrouped and, with renewed determination, defeated the enemy. The victory at Hunayn was followed by a siege of Ta'if, the city that had rejected Muhammad years earlier. However, after a prolonged siege without success, Muhammad lifted the siege, saying, "We shall return if Allah wills."

The distribution of the war booty after Hunayn demonstrated Muhammad's political wisdom. He gave generous shares to the new converts from Mecca to win their hearts and strengthen their commitment to Islam, while the Ansar received less. When some Ansar felt disappointed, Muhammad addressed them with words that moved them to tears: "O Ansar, are you disturbed in your hearts because of the things of this world by which I have sought to incline these people to Islam while I have entrusted you to your Islam? Are you not satisfied that the people go with sheep and camels while you go with the Messenger of Allah to your homes? By Him in Whose Hand is my soul, if there were no migration, I would be one of the Ansar. If the people took one valley and the Ansar took another, I would take the valley of the Ansar." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

The Tabuk Expedition (630 CE / 9 AH)

In 9 AH, reports reached Medina that the Byzantine Empire was amassing troops on the northern borders of Arabia, possibly planning an invasion. Despite the extreme heat of summer and a period of drought and hardship, Muhammad decided to march north to confront this threat. This expedition to Tabuk was the longest and most difficult journey undertaken by the Muslims, covering about 700 kilometers.

The journey tested the faith and commitment of the Muslims. Some hypocrites (munafiqun) made excuses and stayed behind, while true believers sacrificed despite their poverty and the harsh conditions. The Quran extensively discusses this expedition in Surah At-Tawbah, praising those who participated and criticizing those who stayed behind without valid reasons.

When the Muslim army reached Tabuk, they found no Byzantine army. However, the expedition achieved its strategic objectives: it demonstrated Muslim military capability, secured the northern borders, and brought several Christian and Jewish tribes under Muslim protection through treaties. The expedition also exposed the hypocrites in Medina, whose true nature was revealed through their excuses and behavior.

The Farewell Pilgrimage and Final Days

The Farewell Pilgrimage (632 CE / 10 AH)

In 10 AH, Muhammad performed his first and only pilgrimage after the conquest of Mecca, known as the Farewell Pilgrimage (Hajjat al-Wada). More than 100,000 Muslims accompanied him, learning the rites of Hajj directly from the Prophet. This pilgrimage established the rituals that Muslims continue to perform today.

On the 9th of Dhul-Hijjah, at Arafat, Muhammad delivered his famous Farewell Sermon, which encapsulated the core teachings of Islam and established fundamental human rights principles. Key points from this sermon included:

On Human Equality: "All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; a white person has no superiority over a black person, nor does a black person have any superiority over a white person, except by piety and good action."

On the Sanctity of Life and Property: "Your lives and properties are sacred and inviolable amongst one another until you appear before your Lord, as this day and this month are sacred for all."

On Women's Rights: "O people, you have rights over your wives and your wives have rights over you. Treat your women well and be kind to them, for they are your partners and committed helpers."

On Economic Justice: "Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things. All usury (riba) is abolished, but you have your capital. Wrong not and you shall not be wronged."

On Brotherhood: "All believers are brothers. You are not allowed to take things from another Muslim unless he gives it to you willingly."

At the end of his sermon, Muhammad asked, "Have I conveyed the message?" The multitude responded with a resounding "Yes!" He then raised his finger to the sky and said, "O Allah, bear witness," repeating this three times. During this pilgrimage, the final revelation came: "This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion." (Quran 5:3)

The Final Illness and Death

In the early months of 11 AH (May-June 632 CE), Muhammad began to feel unwell. Despite his illness, he continued to lead prayers and attend to community affairs. As his condition worsened, he asked permission from his wives to stay in Aisha's chamber, where she nursed him during his final days.

Even in his illness, Muhammad's concern was for his community. He emphasized the importance of prayer, saying, "Prayer, prayer, and what your right hands possess (i.e., treat your slaves well)." He also warned against turning his grave into a place of worship, saying, "May Allah curse the Jews and Christians, for they built places of worship at the graves of their prophets." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

On the last day of his life, Monday, the 12th of Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 AH (June 8, 632 CE), Muhammad felt slightly better in the morning. He pulled aside the curtain of Aisha's chamber and saw the Muslims praying behind Abu Bakr. He smiled, pleased to see his community united in prayer. This was the last time the companions saw him alive.

Later that day, Muhammad's condition deteriorated. In his final moments, he was heard repeating, "Rather, the highest companionship (in Paradise)," referring to his choice to be with Allah rather than remain in this world. He passed away with his head resting on Aisha's chest, at the age of 63.

The news of his death shocked the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, overcome with grief, initially refused to believe it and threatened anyone who said the Prophet had died. It was Abu Bakr who calmed the situation with his famous words: "Whoever worshipped Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead. But whoever worshipped Allah, let him know that Allah is Ever-Living and never dies." He then recited: "Muhammad is not but a messenger. Other messengers have passed on before him. So if he was to die or be killed, would you turn back on your heels? And he who turns back on his heels will never harm Allah at all; but Allah will reward the grateful." (Quran 3:144)

Muhammad was buried in the chamber where he died, in Aisha's house adjacent to the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. His grave remains there to this day, visited by millions of Muslims annually.

Character and Personal Qualities

Physical Appearance

Detailed Descriptions from Companions

The companions have left remarkably detailed descriptions of Muhammad's physical appearance, preserved in authentic hadith collections. These descriptions were so precise that someone who had never seen him could form a clear mental image. The companions considered describing the Prophet an act of worship and a way of preserving his memory for future generations.

Height and Build

Muhammad was of medium height, neither very tall nor short—what the Arabs called "between two heights" (bayna al-rijalayn). When he walked among people, he was neither conspicuously tall nor noticeably short. Ali ibn Abi Talib described him as "not extremely tall (mummaghit) nor extremely short (mutaraddid), but of medium height among his people."

However, when he stood with a group, he would appear taller than those around him, and when he sat, he would appear taller than those sitting with him. This was attributed to the dignity and presence he carried, which made him seem larger than his actual physical size. Anas ibn Malik reported, "I have never seen anyone more handsome than the Messenger of Allah."

His build was strong and well-proportioned. He had broad shoulders and a wide chest. The space between his shoulders was broad, indicating strength and good health. His bones were large and sturdy, and his joints were well-formed. He had strong, muscular arms and large hands and feet, yet they were soft to the touch. His body was neither fleshy nor thin, but perfectly balanced.

Face and Complexion

Muhammad's face was described as neither round like the full moon nor thin and elongated, but somewhere between—slightly round with a handsome, noble appearance. His complexion was fair (azhar) with a rosy or reddish tint (mushrab bi-humrah), giving his face a radiant, glowing quality. The Arabs considered this the most beautiful complexion.

His forehead was broad and smooth, described as "spacious" (sath), indicating intelligence and nobility. Between his eyebrows, there was a vein that would become visible when he was angry or deeply concerned. His eyebrows were thin, long, and arched, with a slight gap between them. They were naturally dark without being bushy.

His eyes were large, intensely black (shiddat sawad al-'ayn), with long eyelashes. The whites of his eyes had a slight redness (humrah), which was considered a sign of beauty among Arabs. His gaze was powerful yet gentle—when he looked at someone, he would look at them fully, not with sidelong glances. He would lower his gaze modestly and look at the ground more than he looked at the sky.

His nose was straight and well-proportioned, with a slight prominence at the bridge (aqna), which the Arabs considered a sign of beauty and nobility. His cheeks were smooth, neither fleshy nor hollow. His mouth was moderately sized, and his teeth were white, even, and slightly spaced (aflaj), which was considered attractive. When he smiled, his teeth would shine like pearls or hailstones.

Hair and Beard

Muhammad's hair was neither straight nor curly, but wavy (rajil), described as "between curly and straight." It was thick, black, and lustrous. In his youth and middle age, it was completely black. The first white hairs appeared after the revelation of Surah Hud, which contains descriptions of the destruction of previous nations—a chapter that weighed heavily on his heart.

His hair reached his earlobes, and sometimes he would let it grow to his shoulders. He would part it in the middle (farq), though initially he did not part it, following the practice of the People of the Book (Jews and Christians), until he was commanded to differ from them. Sometimes he would plait his hair, especially when traveling.

His beard was thick and full, covering his cheeks and chin. It was predominantly black, with white hairs appearing in his later years, particularly on his chin and at the sides of his mouth. Anas ibn Malik reported, "I counted fourteen white hairs in his beard." The white hairs were few and scattered, not concentrated in one area. He never dyed his hair or beard, though he did not forbid others from doing so.

He had a thin line of hair (masrubah) extending from his chest to his navel, but the rest of his body had little hair. His chest and stomach were smooth, with only this fine line of hair connecting them.

The Seal of Prophethood

Between his shoulder blades, slightly toward the left shoulder, was a distinctive mark known as the "Seal of Prophethood" (Khatam an-Nubuwwah). This was a raised, fleshy mark about the size of a pigeon's egg or a clenched fist, depending on different narrations. It was the same color as his body but slightly raised.

This mark had hair growing on it and was surrounded by moles. Some companions described it as resembling a cluster of moles, while others said it looked like a button or a protruding piece of flesh. This seal was mentioned in previous scriptures as a sign of the final prophet, and it was this mark that Bahira the monk recognized when Muhammad was a child, and that Salman al-Farsi sought when he first met Muhammad to verify his prophethood.

Hands and Feet

Muhammad's hands were described as softer than silk and more fragrant than musk. Despite his manual labor—building mosques, digging trenches, tending to animals—his hands remained soft and pleasant to touch. When he shook hands with someone, his hand would remain fragrant in theirs for the rest of the day.

His palms were wide and thick, indicating generosity (a wide palm was associated with generosity in Arab culture). His fingers were long and well-formed, neither thin nor stubby. His hands were strong—he could lift heavy objects and work alongside his companions in construction and other physical tasks.

His feet were smooth and well-formed, with high arches. They were so smooth that water would not remain on them but would run off. When he walked, he would lift his feet clearly off the ground, not dragging them. His footprints were deep and clear, indicating a purposeful, energetic walk.

Walk and Posture

Muhammad's walk was distinctive and purposeful. He would walk briskly, as if descending a slope, leaning forward slightly with energy and determination. He did not walk slowly or lazily, nor did he rush frantically. His walk was balanced, dignified, and purposeful.

When he walked, he would lift his feet clearly and place them firmly on the ground. He did not drag his feet or shuffle. His steps were close together, not wide apart. When he turned to look at something, he would turn his whole body, not just his head, showing respect and full attention to what he was looking at.

His posture was upright and dignified. He did not slouch or lean unnecessarily. When he sat, he sat with dignity, usually on his heels (iq'a) or cross-legged. He would not stretch his legs out in front of him in gatherings, out of respect for others. He would not lean on his left hand while sitting, as this was considered a posture of arrogance.

Voice and Speech

Muhammad's voice was pleasant and clear, neither too loud nor too soft. When he spoke, his words were distinct and well-articulated. He would speak in a measured pace, not rushing his words, so that anyone who listened could understand and remember what he said. He would sometimes repeat important statements three times to ensure they were understood and remembered.

His speech was concise and meaningful—he would convey much meaning in few words (jawami' al-kalim). He did not speak unnecessarily or engage in idle talk. When he spoke, those present would listen attentively, as if birds were perched on their heads (an Arab expression meaning complete stillness and attention).

He had a pleasant laugh—he would smile often, but his laughter was usually a smile that showed his teeth. He rarely laughed loudly, and when he did, it was a gentle, pleasant sound. Most often, he would smile, and his smile would light up his face like the full moon.

Clothing and Adornment

Muhammad dressed simply and modestly, preferring comfort and cleanliness over luxury. His most common garment was a cotton shirt (qamis) and a cloak (rida). He preferred white clothes, saying, "Wear white clothes, for they are the purest and best, and shroud your dead in them." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi) However, he also wore clothes of other colors—green, red, black, and yellow—showing that variety in clothing was permissible.

He would wear a turban ('imamah), sometimes with a tail hanging down between his shoulders, and sometimes without. Under the turban, he would wear a cap (qalansuwa). In cold weather, he would wear a thick cloak, and in hot weather, lighter garments.

He wore leather socks (khuffayn) and sandals (ni'alayn). His sandals had two straps and were simple in design. He would sometimes walk barefoot, especially in his home or in the mosque.

He wore a silver ring on his right hand, on the little finger. The ring had "Muhammad Rasul Allah" (Muhammad, Messenger of Allah) inscribed on it in three lines. He used this ring to seal letters sent to foreign rulers. He instructed that no one else should engrave the same inscription on their ring. After his death, Abu Bakr, then Umar, then Uthman wore this ring, until it fell into the Well of Aris during Uthman's caliphate and was lost.

Personal Hygiene and Grooming

Muhammad was meticulous about personal hygiene and cleanliness. He would apply kohl (antimony) to his eyes, usually three times in each eye before sleeping, saying it strengthened the eyesight and helped hair growth on the eyelids. He encouraged others to use kohl as well.

He used perfume regularly and loved good scents. His favorite perfumes were musk and ambergris. He would never refuse perfume when offered, saying, "It has a good scent and is light to carry." He would apply perfume to his beard and hair, and the fragrance would remain with him throughout the day.

He would use a miswak (tooth-stick from the arak tree) frequently to clean his teeth, saying, "If it were not a hardship on my ummah, I would have commanded them to use the miswak before every prayer." He would use it when waking up, before prayers, before entering his home, and before sleeping.

He would comb his hair and beard regularly, using oil to keep them lustrous and healthy. He would part his hair in the middle and sometimes plait it. He encouraged others to groom themselves well, saying, "Whoever has hair should honor it," meaning one should keep it clean and well-groomed.

He would trim his mustache short and let his beard grow, following the practice of Prophet Abraham and differing from the Zoroastrians who did the opposite. He would trim his nails regularly, considering it part of the fitrah (natural disposition) that Allah loves.

The Radiance of His Face

Perhaps the most frequently mentioned aspect of Muhammad's appearance was the radiance and light that emanated from his face. Companions would describe his face as being like the full moon in brightness and beauty. This was not merely poetic exaggeration but a consistent description from multiple companions.

Ka'b ibn Malik said, "When the Messenger of Allah was happy, his face would shine as if it were a piece of the moon." Jabir ibn Samurah said, "I saw him on a moonlit night wearing a red cloak, and I looked at him and at the moon, and he was more beautiful to me than the moon."

This radiance was not physical light but a spiritual luminosity that reflected his inner purity, his closeness to Allah, and his noble character. It made people feel drawn to him, comforted in his presence, and inspired by his example.

The Overall Impression

When people saw Muhammad, they were struck by his beauty, dignity, and the awe-inspiring yet approachable presence he carried. Strangers meeting him for the first time would be filled with awe and reverence, but as they got to know him, they would love him deeply. His physical beauty was a reflection of his inner spiritual beauty, and both together made him the most beloved person to those who knew him.

Ali ibn Abi Talib beautifully summarized: "Whoever saw him suddenly would stand in awe of him, and whoever associated with him and got to know him would love him. Those who described him said they had never seen anyone like him before or after."

Moral Character and Conduct

Muhammad's character was exemplary in every aspect. The Quran describes him as being "of a great moral character" (Quran 68:4), and Aisha, when asked about his character, replied, "His character was the Quran," meaning he embodied the teachings of the Quran in his daily life.

Honesty and Trustworthiness: Even before prophethood, he was known as "Al-Amin" (The Trustworthy). His enemies, despite their opposition to his message, trusted him with their valuables. When he migrated to Medina, he left Ali behind to return the items people had entrusted to him.

Humility: Despite being the leader of the Muslim community and a prophet of Allah, Muhammad lived simply. He would mend his own clothes, repair his shoes, help with household chores, and milk his own goats. He sat on the ground, ate simple food, and refused to be treated as superior to others. When people stood up out of respect for him, he would tell them, "Do not stand as the Persians stand for one another."

Mercy and Compassion: Muhammad was known for his exceptional mercy. He showed kindness to children, the elderly, animals, and even his enemies. He would shorten his prayers if he heard a baby crying, out of consideration for the mother. He forbade cruelty to animals and taught that showing mercy to all of Allah's creation was a means of earning Allah's mercy.

Justice and Fairness: He was scrupulously fair in his dealings, never showing favoritism. When a woman from a noble family was caught stealing, some companions suggested leniency due to her status. Muhammad was angered by this suggestion and declared, "The people before you were destroyed because they used to inflict legal punishments on the poor and forgive the rich. By Allah, if Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, stole, I would cut off her hand." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

Generosity: Muhammad was extremely generous, never refusing anyone who asked him for something if he had it. He would give away everything he had, trusting in Allah's provision. Anas ibn Malik reported that the Prophet was never asked for anything for the sake of Islam except that he gave it.

Patience and Forgiveness: Throughout his life, Muhammad demonstrated remarkable patience in the face of persecution, hardship, and personal loss. He forgave those who wronged him, including the people of Mecca who had persecuted him for years. When asked to curse his enemies, he replied, "I have not been sent as one who curses, but I have been sent as a mercy."

Courage: Muhammad showed great physical and moral courage. In battle, he would be at the forefront, and companions reported that in times of danger, they would seek protection near him. His moral courage in standing up for truth against overwhelming opposition was equally remarkable.

Daily Life and Habits

Daily Routine

Muhammad's daily life was structured around worship, service to others, and fulfilling his responsibilities as a prophet and leader. His routine provides a model for Muslims seeking to balance spiritual devotion with worldly obligations.

Night and Early Morning: Muhammad would sleep early, usually after the Isha prayer, and wake up in the last third of the night for Tahajjud (night prayer). He said, "The best prayer after the obligatory prayers is the night prayer." (Sahih Muslim) He would pray for extended periods, sometimes standing so long that his feet would swell. When asked why he exerted himself so much when Allah had forgiven his past and future sins, he replied, "Should I not be a grateful servant?" (Sahih al-Bukhari)

After Tahajjud, he would use the miswak (tooth-stick) to clean his teeth and perform ablution. He would then rest briefly before the Fajr (dawn) prayer. After Fajr, he would remain in the mosque, engaging in dhikr (remembrance of Allah) and supplication until sunrise. He would then pray two rak'ahs (the Duha prayer) and return home or attend to community affairs.

Morning Activities: His mornings were spent teaching, judging between people, receiving delegations, planning military campaigns, or attending to the needs of the Muslim community. He would sit with his companions, answering their questions about religion, listening to their concerns, and providing guidance.

Afternoon: After the Dhuhr (noon) prayer, he would often take a brief rest (qaylulah), a practice he encouraged as it provided energy for night worship. He said, "Take a nap, for the devils do not take naps." (Sahih al-Bukhari) After the Asr (afternoon) prayer, he would visit the sick, attend funerals, or spend time with his family.

Evening: After Maghrib (sunset) prayer, he would spend time with his family, eating dinner and conversing with his wives. After Isha (night) prayer, he would retire to rest, sleeping on his right side and reciting specific supplications. He taught, "When you go to bed, perform ablution as you do for prayer, then lie down on your right side." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

Eating Habits

Muhammad's eating habits reflected moderation, gratitude, and mindfulness. He never ate to full capacity, saying, "The son of Adam does not fill any vessel worse than his stomach. It is sufficient for the son of Adam to eat a few mouthfuls to keep him going. If he must fill it, then one-third for food, one-third for drink, and one-third for air." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi)

Before Eating: He would wash his hands and say "Bismillah" (In the name of Allah) before eating. He taught that saying Bismillah prevents Satan from sharing the food.

Manner of Eating: He would eat with his right hand, taking food from what was directly in front of him, not reaching across to other parts of the dish. He would eat with three fingers (thumb, index, and middle), not using all five fingers unless the food required it. He would lick his fingers after eating, saying, "When one of you eats, let him lick his fingers, for he does not know in which of them the blessing is." (Sahih Muslim)

Food Preferences: He loved honey, dates, milk, meat (especially lamb shoulder), pumpkin, and vinegar. He said, "The best of condiments is vinegar." (Sahih Muslim) He would eat whatever was available, never criticizing food. If he liked something, he would eat it, and if he disliked it, he would leave it without comment.

After Eating: He would praise Allah, saying, "Praise be to Allah who has fed us and given us drink and made us Muslims." (Sunan Abu Dawood) He would lick his fingers and the plate, ensuring no food was wasted.

Fasting: Besides the obligatory fasting of Ramadan, he would fast Mondays and Thursdays, saying these were days when deeds were presented to Allah. He would fast three days of each month (the 13th, 14th, and 15th) and encouraged fasting six days of Shawwal. He would fast the Day of Arafah (9th of Dhul-Hijjah) and the Day of Ashura (10th of Muharram).

Sleep Patterns

Muhammad's sleep was moderate and purposeful. He would sleep early and wake early, maximizing the blessed hours of the night and early morning. He taught that sleeping after Fajr prayer prevented provision (rizq) and that staying awake after Isha prayer without benefit was discouraged.

Sleeping Position: He would sleep on his right side, placing his right hand under his right cheek. He taught this position, saying, "When you go to bed, lie on your right side." (Sahih al-Bukhari) He would not sleep on his stomach, saying, "This is a way of lying down that Allah dislikes." (Sunan Abu Dawood)

Before Sleep Supplications: He would recite specific verses and supplications before sleeping, including Ayat al-Kursi (Quran 2:255), the last two verses of Surah Al-Baqarah, and Surah Al-Ikhlas, Al-Falaq, and An-Nas. He would blow into his hands after reciting and wipe them over his body.

Dreams: He experienced true dreams (ru'ya sadiqah), which were a form of revelation. He said, "The true dream of a righteous person is one of forty-six parts of prophethood." (Sahih al-Bukhari) He would ask his companions about their dreams and interpret them, teaching them the etiquette of dealing with good and bad dreams.

Personal Hygiene

Muhammad was meticulous about cleanliness, considering it part of faith. He said, "Cleanliness is half of faith." (Sahih Muslim)

Ablution (Wudu): He would perform ablution before each of the five daily prayers and often at other times. He taught the proper method of ablution, washing each part three times and being thorough yet not wasteful with water.

Bathing (Ghusl): He would perform ghusl (full bath) on Fridays, after sexual relations, and when needed. He encouraged bathing on Fridays, saying, "Whoever performs ghusl on Friday, purifies himself as much as he can, applies oil or perfume, then goes to the mosque without pushing between people, then prays as much as Allah wills, then listens attentively when the imam speaks, his sins between that Friday and the next will be forgiven." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

Miswak: He used the miswak (tooth-stick) frequently—when waking up, before prayers, before entering his home, before sleeping, and whenever his mouth felt unclean. He said, "If it were not a hardship on my ummah, I would have commanded them to use the miswak before every prayer." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

Trimming and Grooming: He would trim his nails regularly, considering it part of the fitrah (natural disposition). He would trim his mustache short and let his beard grow. He would comb his hair and beard, applying oil to keep them healthy and lustrous. He would remove hair from his armpits and private areas regularly, not letting more than forty days pass without doing so.

Perfume: He loved perfume and would apply it regularly, especially on Fridays and when going to the mosque. His favorite scents were musk and ambergris. He said, "Perfume for men should have a strong scent and little color, while perfume for women should have a strong color and little scent." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi)

Clothing

Muhammad dressed modestly and simply, preferring comfort and cleanliness over luxury. He said, "Eat what you like and wear what you like, as long as two things are avoided: extravagance and pride." (Sunan Ibn Majah)

Preferred Colors: He preferred white clothes, saying, "Wear white clothes, for they are the purest and best." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi) However, he also wore green, red, black, and yellow garments, showing that variety was permissible.

Types of Garments: He would wear a shirt (qamis), a cloak (rida), a waist wrapper (izar), and sometimes a jubba (a long outer garment). He would wear a turban, sometimes with a tail hanging down, and sometimes without. In cold weather, he would wear thicker garments, and in hot weather, lighter ones.

Footwear: He wore leather socks and sandals. His sandals had two straps. He taught the etiquette of wearing shoes: putting on the right shoe first and removing the left shoe first.

Jewelry: He wore a silver ring on his right hand, on the little finger, with "Muhammad Rasul Allah" inscribed on it. He forbade men from wearing gold but allowed them to wear silver. He allowed women to wear gold and silver jewelry.

Social Interactions

In Gatherings: Muhammad would sit wherever there was space available, not seeking a special place. He would sit on the ground, on a mat, or on a simple cushion. He would not stretch his legs out in front of him in gatherings, out of respect for others.

Greeting: He would initiate greetings, saying "As-salamu alaykum" (Peace be upon you) to everyone he met, including children. He taught that greeting was a means of spreading love and peace in the community.

Handshake: When shaking hands, he would not withdraw his hand until the other person withdrew theirs. His handshake was firm yet gentle, and his hand would remain fragrant in the other person's hand.

Conversation: He would speak clearly and distinctly, at a moderate pace. He would repeat important statements three times to ensure understanding. He would listen attentively when others spoke, giving them his full attention. He would not interrupt or speak over others.

Humor: He had a sense of humor and would joke with his companions, but his jokes were always truthful and kind, never hurtful or inappropriate. Once, an old woman asked him if old women would enter Paradise. He said, "No old woman will enter Paradise," causing her distress. Then he smiled and explained, "Because Allah will make them young again." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi)

With Children: He would greet children, play with them, and show them affection. He would carry them on his shoulders, race with them, and make them feel valued. He taught that showing mercy to children was a sign of faith.

Time Management

Muhammad's time management reflected his priorities: worship of Allah, service to others, and fulfilling his responsibilities. He would divide his time into portions: time for worship, time for family, time for companions, time for community affairs, and time for rest.

He taught the value of time, saying, "Take advantage of five before five: your youth before your old age, your health before your illness, your wealth before your poverty, your free time before your busyness, and your life before your death." (Mustadrak al-Hakim)

He would not waste time in idle talk or useless activities. Every moment was purposeful, whether in worship, teaching, serving others, or resting to gain energy for worship and service.

Work and Livelihood

Despite being a prophet and leader, Muhammad engaged in physical work. He would help build mosques, dig trenches, tend to animals, mend his clothes, repair his shoes, and assist with household chores. He said, "No one has ever eaten better food than that which he eats from the work of his own hands." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

He encouraged Muslims to work and earn a halal (lawful) living, saying, "It is better for one of you to take his rope, go to the mountain, bring a bundle of firewood on his back and sell it, thereby saving his face (from the humiliation of begging), than to beg from people whether they give him or refuse." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

He honored all types of lawful work and did not consider any halal profession beneath dignity. He said, "The best earnings are from the work of a man's own hands and from honest trade." (Musnad Ahmad)

Family Life and Relationships

Muhammad's family life exemplified Islamic teachings on marriage, parenting, and family relations. He was a loving husband, caring father, and devoted grandfather.

As a Husband: Muhammad treated his wives with kindness, respect, and affection. He would help with household chores, showing that such work was not beneath a man's dignity. He was playful with his wives, racing with Aisha and showing affection openly. He emphasized the importance of treating wives well, saying, "The best of you are those who are best to their wives, and I am the best of you to my wives." (Sunan al-Tirmidhi)

After Khadijah's death, Muhammad married several women, most of these marriages having social, political, or humanitarian purposes. He married widows of martyrs to provide for them, formed alliances with different tribes through marriage, and demonstrated that Islam honored women regardless of their age or previous marital status.

As a Father: Muhammad was deeply devoted to his daughters. He would stand up when Fatimah entered the room and kiss her forehead. When his infant son Ibrahim died, he wept, showing that expressing grief was not contrary to faith. He said, "The eyes shed tears and the heart is grieved, but we will not say anything except what pleases our Lord."

As a Grandfather: Muhammad showed great affection for his grandchildren, Hassan and Hussain. He would carry them on his shoulders, play with them, and shorten his prayers if they climbed on his back during prostration. This demonstrated the importance of showing love and affection to children.

Treatment of Others

Servants and Slaves: Anas ibn Malik, who served Muhammad for ten years, reported that the Prophet never rebuked him or asked "Why did you do that?" or "Why did you not do that?" Muhammad emphasized the humane treatment of servants and slaves, saying, "They are your brothers whom Allah has placed under your authority. So whoever has a brother under his authority should feed him from what he eats and clothe him from what he wears, and do not burden them beyond their capacity, and if you burden them, then help them." (Sahih al-Bukhari)

Children: Muhammad showed special kindness to children. He would greet them, play with them, and make them feel valued. When he saw children, he would initiate greetings and show them affection. He taught that showing mercy to children was a sign of faith.

The Poor and Needy: Muhammad had a special concern for the poor and vulnerable. He would visit the sick, attend funerals, and help those in need. He established the principle of social welfare in Islam, making care for the poor a religious obligation through zakat (obligatory charity) and encouraging voluntary charity (sadaqah).

Neighbors: Muhammad emphasized the rights of neighbors, saying, "Gabriel kept advising me about the neighbor until I thought he would make him an inheritor." (Sahih al-Bukhari) He taught that a person's faith was incomplete if their neighbor went to bed hungry while they were full.

Animals: Muhammad's mercy extended to animals. He forbade cruelty to animals, taught proper methods of slaughter to minimize suffering, and emphasized that showing kindness to animals could lead to Paradise. He told the story of a prostitute who was forgiven by Allah for giving water to a thirsty dog, and of a woman who was punished for starving a cat to death.

Teachings and Legacy

Core Theological Teachings

Tawhid (Monotheism): The central message of Muhammad's prophethood was the absolute oneness of Allah (Tawhid). He called people to abandon idol worship and recognize Allah as the sole Creator, Sustainer, and deity worthy of worship. This message was not new but a restoration of the original monotheistic faith of Abraham. The declaration of faith (Shahada)—"There is no deity except Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah"—encapsulates this fundamental belief.

Prophethood: Muhammad taught that Allah had sent prophets to every nation throughout history, all conveying the same essential message of monotheism and moral conduct. He emphasized that he was the final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets" (Khatam an-Nabiyyin), completing the line of messengers. He taught respect for all previous prophets, particularly Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, whom he described as his brothers in prophethood.

The Quran: Muhammad presented the Quran as the literal word of Allah, revealed to him over 23 years through the Angel Gabriel. He emphasized that the Quran was a miracle in its linguistic beauty, its comprehensive guidance, and its preservation. Unlike previous scriptures, the Quran was to be preserved in its original form, and Muhammad ensured its memorization and written compilation during his lifetime.

The Hereafter: Muhammad taught extensively about life after death, the Day of Judgment, Paradise, and Hell. He emphasized that this worldly life is a test, and that every person will be held accountable for their beliefs and actions. This belief in accountability gave moral weight to human actions and provided hope for justice beyond this world.

Angels and the Unseen: Muhammad taught about the existence of angels, jinn, and other aspects of the unseen world. He described angels as beings created from light who carry out Allah's commands, including Gabriel who brought revelation, Michael who controls rain and vegetation, and Israfil who will blow the trumpet on the Day of Judgment.

Social and Ethical Teachings

Social Justice: Muhammad revolutionized Arabian society by establishing principles of social justice. He abolished the practice of burying infant daughters alive, elevated the status of women, protected the rights of orphans, and established a system of social welfare through zakat. He taught that wealth was a trust from Allah and that the rich had obligations toward the poor.

Women's Rights: In a society where women had few rights, Muhammad brought revolutionary changes. He gave women the right to own property, inherit wealth, choose their spouses, seek divorce, and receive education. He emphasized that men and women were equal in their spiritual worth and accountability before Allah. He said, "Women are the twin halves of men" (Sunan Abu Dawood), emphasizing their complementary nature and equal value.

Racial Equality: Muhammad explicitly rejected racial superiority, teaching that all humans descended from Adam and Eve and that the only basis for superiority was piety and good character. His final sermon at Arafat made this crystal clear: "All mankind is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, nor does a non-Arab have any superiority over an Arab; a white person has no superiority over a black person, nor does a black person have any superiority over a white person, except by piety and good action."

Economic Ethics: Muhammad established principles of economic justice, prohibiting usury (riba), fraud, hoarding, and exploitation. He encouraged honest trade, fulfillment of contracts, and fair treatment of workers. He taught that workers should be paid their wages before their sweat dried, emphasizing prompt and fair compensation.

Environmental Stewardship: Muhammad taught respect for the environment and sustainable use of resources. He prohibited cutting trees unnecessarily, wasting water even when performing ablution at a running stream, and causing harm to the environment. He encouraged planting trees, saying, "If the Hour is about to be established and one of you has a palm-seedling in his hand, if he is able to plant it before the Hour is established, let him plant it." (Musnad Ahmad)

Knowledge and Education: Muhammad placed tremendous emphasis on seeking knowledge, declaring it an obligation for every Muslim, male and female. He said, "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim." He encouraged his companions to learn from other cultures and civilizations, with many companions learning foreign languages to facilitate communication and knowledge transfer.

Political and Governance Principles

Consultation (Shura): Despite receiving divine revelation, Muhammad regularly consulted with his companions on worldly matters. This established the Islamic principle of consultation in governance. He would seek advice on military strategy, economic policies, and community affairs, demonstrating that leadership should be consultative rather than autocratic.

Justice and Rule of Law: Muhammad established that law applied equally to all, regardless of social status. He refused to show favoritism and insisted that even his own family members would be subject to the same laws as everyone else. This principle of equality before the law was revolutionary in a tribal society where justice often depended on one's tribal affiliation and social status.

Treaties and International Relations: Muhammad honored treaties and agreements, teaching that Muslims must fulfill their commitments even to non-Muslims. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah demonstrated his commitment to peace and his willingness to make short-term concessions for long-term strategic benefits. He established principles of diplomatic relations, treatment of ambassadors, and conduct during war.

Minority Rights: The Constitution of Medina established unprecedented protections for religious minorities. Jews, Christians, and other non-Muslims living under Muslim rule were guaranteed freedom of religion, protection of life and property, and the right to their own legal systems in personal matters. This pluralistic approach was remarkable for its time and established principles that influenced later Islamic governance.

Military Ethics and Conduct of War

Despite being involved in numerous military campaigns, Muhammad established strict ethical guidelines for warfare that were revolutionary for his time:

Prohibition of Targeting Non-Combatants: Muhammad explicitly forbade killing women, children, the elderly, and religious clergy. He instructed his commanders, "Do not kill women, children, or the elderly. Do not cut down trees, destroy buildings, or kill animals except for food."

Treatment of Prisoners: Muhammad established humane treatment of prisoners of war. After the Battle of Badr, he instructed that prisoners should be fed the same food as their captors and treated with dignity. Many prisoners were released for ransom or in exchange for teaching literacy to Muslim children.

Prohibition of Mutilation and Torture: Muhammad strictly forbade mutilation of enemy dead, torture, and excessive violence. Even in the heat of battle, ethical conduct was to be maintained.

Preference for Peace: Muhammad always preferred peace over war when possible. He accepted the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah despite its apparently unfavorable terms, and he conquered Mecca with minimal bloodshed, offering general amnesty to his former persecutors.

Impact and Historical Significance

Transformation of Arabian Society

Muhammad's impact on Arabian society was profound and multifaceted. Within 23 years, he transformed a fragmented, tribal society characterized by constant warfare, idol worship, and social injustice into a unified community based on monotheism, social justice, and moral principles.

Religious Transformation: He eliminated idol worship from Arabia and established monotheism. The Kaaba, which had housed 360 idols, was purified and restored to its original purpose as a house of worship for the One God.

Social Transformation: He abolished many pre-Islamic practices such as female infanticide, unlimited polygamy, and the exploitation of orphans and widows. He elevated the status of women, slaves, and the poor, establishing their rights and dignity.

Political Transformation: He united the warring tribes of Arabia under the banner of Islam, creating a political entity that would soon expand beyond the Arabian Peninsula. The concept of ummah (community) transcended tribal loyalties and created a new basis for social organization.

Economic Transformation: He established principles of economic justice, prohibiting usury, fraud, and exploitation while encouraging trade, charity, and equitable distribution of wealth.

Influence on World Civilization

Muhammad's influence extended far beyond Arabia, shaping the course of world history:

Islamic Civilization: The principles and teachings of Muhammad laid the foundation for Islamic civilization, which would flourish for centuries. The Islamic Golden Age, spanning roughly from the 8th to the 14th centuries, saw unprecedented advances in science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and the arts, all inspired by Muhammad's emphasis on knowledge and learning.

Legal Systems: Islamic law (Sharia), based on the Quran and Muhammad's teachings and example (Sunnah), influenced legal systems across the Muslim world and beyond. Concepts such as contracts, property rights, and criminal justice in Islamic law influenced European legal development during the Middle Ages.

Interfaith Relations: Muhammad's example of coexistence with Jews and Christians in Medina, as codified in the Constitution of Medina, established principles of religious pluralism that influenced later Islamic governance. The concept of dhimmi (protected non-Muslim citizens) provided a framework for religious minorities to live under Muslim rule with guaranteed rights and protections.

Social Justice Movements: Muhammad's teachings on social justice, equality, and human rights have inspired reform movements throughout Islamic history and continue to influence contemporary discussions on these issues.

Global Spread of Islam: Today, Islam is the world's second-largest religion with over 1.8 billion followers across the globe. This global community traces its faith back to Muhammad's teachings and strives to follow his example in their daily lives.

The Sunnah and Hadith Literature

Muhammad's teachings, actions, and approvals (collectively known as the Sunnah) were carefully preserved by his companions and later compiled into collections of hadith. These collections, particularly the Sahih (authentic) collections of Bukhari and Muslim, serve as the second source of Islamic guidance after the Quran.

The science of hadith criticism developed to authenticate these narrations, examining the chain of transmission (isnad) and the content (matn) to determine authenticity. This rigorous methodology of historical criticism was unprecedented in its time and influenced later Western historical methodology.

The hadith literature provides detailed information about Muhammad's life, character, and teachings, allowing Muslims throughout history to understand and emulate his example. The concept of following the Prophet's Sunnah has been central to Islamic practice and has ensured the continuity of Islamic teachings across time and geography.

Continuing Influence

Muhammad's influence continues to shape the lives of Muslims worldwide:

Daily Practice: Muslims invoke blessings upon Muhammad in their daily prayers, follow his example in their worship, and seek to emulate his character in their interactions with others.

Legal and Ethical Guidance: Islamic scholars continue to derive legal rulings and ethical guidance from Muhammad's teachings and example, applying his principles to contemporary issues.

Spiritual Inspiration: Muhammad's life story, his patience in adversity, his trust in Allah, and his moral character continue to inspire Muslims in their spiritual journey.

Social Reform: Muhammad's teachings on social justice, women's rights, and economic equity continue to inspire reform movements within Muslim societies.

Conclusion

Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) stands as one of the most influential figures in human history. His life journey from an orphan in Mecca to the Prophet of Islam and leader of a unified Arabian community is a testament to his character, wisdom, and the divine message he carried.

His teachings transformed not only Arabian society but influenced the course of world civilization. The principles he established—monotheism, social justice, human dignity, knowledge-seeking, and moral conduct—continue to guide over a billion Muslims worldwide and have contributed to human civilization in countless ways.

For Muslims, Muhammad is not merely a historical figure but the perfect example of how to live according to Allah's guidance. His life, as recorded in the Quran, hadith, and biographical works, provides a comprehensive model for personal conduct, family life, social relations, and governance. The Islamic greeting of peace and blessings upon him—"Peace Be Upon Him" (PBUH) or "Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam" (SAW)—reflects the love, respect, and reverence Muslims hold for him.

His message was universal and timeless: to worship Allah alone, to treat all people with justice and compassion, to seek knowledge, to establish social justice, and to prepare for the eternal life to come. This message, preserved in the Quran and his Sunnah, continues to guide humanity toward truth, justice, and spiritual fulfillment.

As the Quran states: "Indeed, in the Messenger of Allah you have an excellent example for whoever has hope in Allah and the Last Day, and remembers Allah often." (Quran 33:21)

Further Reading

For those interested in learning more about Prophet Muhammad's life and teachings, the following topics provide deeper insights:

• The Quran - The divine revelation received by Prophet Muhammad
• Hadith - The recorded sayings and actions of the Prophet
• Sunnah - The Prophet's way of life and example
• Mecca - The Prophet's birthplace and the holiest city in Islam
• Medina - The city where the Prophet established the first Islamic state
• The Hijra - The migration from Mecca to Medina
• Battle of Badr - The first major military victory
• Treaty of Hudaybiyyah - A pivotal peace treaty
• Conquest of Mecca - The peaceful conquest of the Prophet's birthplace
• Farewell Pilgrimage - The Prophet's final pilgrimage and sermon
• Khadijah bint Khuwaylid - The Prophet's first wife and supporter
• Abu Bakr - The Prophet's closest companion and first Caliph
• Ali ibn Abi Talib - The Prophet's cousin and son-in-law
• Aisha bint Abu Bakr - The Prophet's wife and scholar
• Rashidun Caliphate - The period following the Prophet's death