Islamic Conquest

The conquest of Jerusalem in 638 CE by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab marked the peaceful Islamic liberation of the holy city, establishing principles of religious tolerance and protection that would characterize Islamic rule in Jerusalem for centuries.

Egypt's transformation from Pharaonic civilization through Islamic conquest to become a center of Islamic learning and modern Arab leadership, with Al-Azhar's enduring religious authority and pivotal role in Islamic history.

Historically Persia, the one major region taken by the early Muslim armies that kept its own language and culture while reshaping Islamic civilisation. Its Shi'a identity dates from the Safavids of 1501, and its clerical leadership governs the present republic.

Khalid ibn al-Walid (592-642 CE) was the most effective commander of the early Islamic conquests, known as the Sword of Allah after the Prophet's description of him at Mu'tah. He led Muslim forces across Arabia, Iraq, and Syria.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (361-421 AH / 971-1030 CE) was the most powerful Ghaznavid ruler, campaigning into the Indian subcontinent for nearly thirty years and making Ghazni a centre of Persian culture and Islamic learning. He was the first sovereign of Islam styled Sultan by the caliphs of Baghdad.